ZOOLOGY HIGHER SECONDARY - FIRST YEAR Revised based on the recommendation of the Textbook Development Committee A Publication under Government of Tamilnadu Distribution of Free Textbook Programme (NOT FOR SALE) Untouchability is a sin Untouchability is a crime Untouchability is inhuman TAMIL NADU TEXTBOOK CORPORATION College Road, Chennai - 600 006. © Government of Tamilnadu First Edition - 2005 Revised Edition - 2007 Chairperson Prof. T. SARGUNAM STEPHEN Dept. of Zoology Govt. Arts College Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035. Reviewers Dr. D. Mony Dr. D. Sudarsanam Reader in Zoology Reader and H O D R. M. Vivekananda College Dept. of Zoology Mylapore Loyola College, Nungambakkam Chennai - 600 004. Chennai - 600 034. Authors Tmt. Anne Freeda Chandran Tmt. V. M. Gayathri Rani P.G.T. in Zoology P. G. T. in Zoology Bentinck Hr. Sec. School for girls Govt. Girls Higher Sec. School Vepery, Chennai - 600 007. Ashok Nagar,Chennai - 600 083. Thiru. T. Sekar P. G. T. in Zoology Govt. Girls Higher Sec. School Choolaimedu Chennai - 600 094. Price : Rs. This book has been prepared by The Directorate of School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu. This book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper. Preface This book has been prepared with an idea that on completion of the course, the student can opt for any field related to the Biological Sciences in his / her higher studies. A foundation for learning various subjects had already been provided in the lower classes through appropriate revisions in the syllabus. The revision of syllabus made, has provided us with an opportunity to offer adequate information related to several fields in biology to the students of Higher Secondary classes. The 11th and 12th standard lessons are interlinked. A sound knowledge of the material provided in this book will be essential for pursuing the next level. The lessons are written in such a way that the student is encouraged to do further reference work. A list of books for such reference work is provided. The students can also visit websites related to each lesson. Sample questions are provided at the end of each unit. The teachers can frame more questions to test knowledge, understanding, application and extension of this discipline. As the scope of life sciences is widening due to increasing demands and ultra developments in all fields, an active, interested indulgence in the study of Biology will certainly be beneficial. T. Sargunam Stephen Chairperson Biology (Zoology) Text book writing committee. Standard XI - Zoology Syllabus Theory Unit I : Bio - diversity Taxonomic systems : Introduction to Taxa - Species concept - Methods of Taxonomy - Phenetic methods - Identification keys - Cytotaxonomy - Chemotaxonomy - Palaeotaxonomy - Nomenclature methods. Animal groups : Methods of grouping animals - Major Phyla - General characters with appropriate examples - Protozoa - Porifera - Coelenterata - Platyhelminthes - Aschelminthes - Annelida - Arthropoda - Mollusca - Echinodermata - Chordata. Type Study : Plasmodium - Earthworm - Amphioxus-Pigeon. Unit II : Cell Biology Introduction : Microscopy and Cytological techniques. Animal cell - Ultra structure : Plasma membrane - Nucleus - Mitochondria - Ribosomes - Endoplasmic reticulum - Lysosomes - Golgibodies - Centrosomes - Chromosomes. Cancer Biology : Cancer definition - Types of cancer - Management of cancer-Radio therapy-Chemotherapy. Unit III : Human Anatomy Human systems : History - The integumentary - Skeletal - Muscular - Digestive - Respiratory - Circulatory - Lymphatic - Nervous - Sense organs - Endocrine - Excretory - Reproductive. Unit IV : Genetics Introduction - Multiple alleles - Quantitative inheritance - Sex determination - Sex linked inheritance - Pleiotropy-Hardy Weinberg law- Population genetics. Uint V : Developmental Biology Introduction - Types of eggs - Cleavage and types - Frog’s egg - Gastrulation in frog embryo - Organogenesis in frog-Developmental stages in eye and heart. Unit VI : Economic Zoology Beneficial animals : Corals - Earthworm - Vermiculture - Beneficial insects - Prawns - Lobsters - Crabs - Pearl oysters - Fishes - Guano - Aquarium - Vivarium-Planaria-Regeneration studies. Harmful animals : Disease causing organisms - Vectors - Poisonous organisms - Fouling organisms - Pests. Unit VII : Origin of life Theories - Geological time scale - Fossils - Extinct animals - Mass extinction-Evidences for evolution-Comparative anatomy-Embryology- Physiology-Vestigeal organs-Geographical distribution. Standard XI - Zoology Syllabus Practical I Earthworm - Mounting of Body setae - minimum 3 setae II Shark - Mounting of Placoid scales III Study of parts of a compound microscope and dissection microscope. IV Prepared slides - observation - drawing and writing notes on 1. Plasmodium - any 2 stages 2. Paramoecium - entire, Paramoecium - conjugation 3. Hydra - entire 4. Tapeworm - Scolex 5. Earthworm - Body setae and Peneal setae - Cross section of body 6. Amphioxus - entire 7. Amphioxus - Cross section through different regions 8. Shark - Placoid scales V Museum specimens Simple sponge, Corals, Tapeworm - entire, Ascaris - entire (male and female), Earthworm - entire, Prawn - entire, Cockroach - Dorsal and ventral views, Apple snail, Sepia, Star fish, Sea urchin, Amphioxus, Shark, A teleost fish, Frog, Calotes, A snake, Pigeon, Quill feather, Rat VI Demonstration only 1. Earthworm - Viscera and Nervous system 2. Circulation of Blood in the wing of a live cockroach. 3. Frog - Buccal cavity, viscera and Digestive system. VII Human anatomy 1. Upper and lower jaw with dentition 2. Models / actual bones - humerus, radius ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, vertebrae, pelvic girdle CONTENTS Page 1. BIODIVERSITY 1 2. CELL BIOLOGY 76 3. HUMAN ANATOMY 104 4. GENETICS 180 5. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 201 6. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY 223 7. ORIGIN OF LIFE 268 vii 1. BIODIVERSITY Our planet, earth, is occupied by diverse kinds of living organisms. They live in various environments. The world is estimated to have 5 to 30 million species of living organisms. At present about 2.5 million species of living organisms have been given scientific names. Over 1.5 million of them are animal species and out of which 750,000 belong to insect species alone. There are 350,000 species of plants including algae, fungi, mosses and higher forms of plants. Thus the existence of different forms of a species or genus and diverse adaptations for, varied surroundings are referred to as “biodiversity”. The survival of such a vast range of living beings could be ensured only when their habitats and environmental conditions remain without alterations. The term ‘biosphere’ had been coined to highlight the interde- pendence of living and non-living world. It represents a stable environment of various physical and biological factors which have been operating since the past. The organic continuity of the system rests on a delicate network of inter- dependent relationships. The air, the water, the animals, the plants, the mi- crobes and human beings are all interlinked in a life sustaining system, called the environment. Safeguarding the entire biosphere with all its intricacies is of prime importance today. The nations of the world have convened several conferences and adopted important resolutions for safeguarding the sustainability of earth. In this background, the United Nation’s ‘Environmental Agency’ organised the “International Conference on Human Environment” at Stockholm in 1972. This conference adopted the motto ‘Only one earth’. In 1982, a UN conference on Environment was held at Nairobi. The UN again convened “Earth summit” at Rio de Janeiro highlighting “our common future”, in 1992. Once again a world summit on sustainable development was organised in Johannesberg in 2002. One of the agenda commonly placed and accepted in all these meets was the significance of biodiversity and its conservation to ensure sustainable earth. Biodiversity in Indias India’s immense biological diversity represents about 7% of world’s flora and 6.5% of world’s fauna. About 62 % animals in India are endemic to the country. India is one of the 12 countries identified as mega centres of biological diversity. 1 As per the State Forest Report 1999, based on visual and satellite data from IRS-1B, 1C and 1D, the total forest cover of India is 637,293 sq. km. It is 19.39 % of the total geographic area of the country. It comprises about 64 million hectares. Indian flora comprises about 15,000 flowering plants of which roughly around 1,500 plant species are threatened. Mammalian fauna of India is 372 species with 63% in Assam. India’s 1228 bird species represent about 13% of world’s total. Reptilian and amphibian fauna includes 446 and 204 species respectively. Since the world has a vast range of organisms, identifying the useful, as well as harmful living beings is a need. Differentiating, grouping and giving names to living things has been an ancient activity of every human culture. Without proper classification it would be impossible to deal with enor- mous diversity of life forms. 1.1 Taxonomic systems The initiation for eolving taxonomic systems was provided by Aristotle (384-322 BC). He emphasized that animals can be classified according to their way of living, actions, habits and body parts. He observed insects, fishes, birds and whales. The insect orders like Coleoptera, Diptera were created by him. Due to his contributions, he is considered as the ‘father of biological classification’. For modern taxonomy, the first work was carried out by John Ray (1627 - 1705) of England. His most interesting systematic work ‘Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis’ was published in 1693. He divided animals into those with blood and those without blood. He also classified animals based on gills, lungs, claws, teeth and other structures. He provided the first good definition of the species as ‘a reproducing unit’. The great Swedish naturalist Linnaeus (Caroli Linnaei) (1707 - 1778) exerted an important influence on further advancement in taxonomy. Hence he has been called the father of taxonomy. In 1758 he published his famous book, systema naturae. He first introduced the hierarchic system, both in animal and plant kingdoms. He followed four categories namely class, order, genus, species for the animal world. His greatest contribution to taxonomy was the use of binomial nomenclature for all species of animals and plants. 2 Michael Adamson (1727 - 1806), a French botanist, stressed that classification should be based on as many characters as possible. His concept helped to develop a new type of taxonomy called ‘Numerical Taxonomy’. Lamarck (1744 - 1829) made the first attempt to improve Linnaen system. He published seven volumes of his ‘Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres’. He arranged animals according to evolution. He displayed the groups of animals in the form of a branching tree. It was the beginning of the use of phylogeny in systematics. Cuvier (1769 - 1832) insisted that extinct fossil forms should be included in the table of classification. He divided animals into four branches. They are Vertebrata-fishes to mammals, Mollusca-mollusca and barnacles, Articulata-annelids, crustaceans, insects and spiders and Radiata- echinoderms, nematodes and coelenterates. Charles Darwin in 1859, published his famous work ‘Origin of species’. The new evolutionary concept of Darwin had an immediate acceptance among biologists. Due to the influence of evolutionary ideas, taxonomy was studied as an important evidence in favour of evolution. The taxonomists were encouraged to learn that evolution theory of Darwin gave meaning to their classifying activities. A large number of species were discovered and described. The development of modern taxonomy started during 1930s. During this period taxonomy was based on population studies. E. Mayr (1942) considered species as “groups of interbreeding natural popu- lations”. His book ‘New Systematics’ became a landmark in the history of taxonomy. The taxonomists were forced to accept species as a ‘population’. Hence the taxonomist started moving from the laboratory to the field. Morphological characters were studied along with other characters as behaviour, sound, ecology, genetics, zoogeography, physiology and biochemistry. Thus taxonomy was transformed into ‘biological taxonomy’. 1.1.1 Introduction to taxa and species While grouping or arranging the organisms, a biologist faces three scientific ideas, namely taxonomy, systematics and classification. These disciplines though appear similar have slight deviations in their meaning. The term taxonomy is a Greek word. Its components are taxis and nomos. While taxis means arrangement, nomos means law. Thus taxonomy is defined as the “theory and practice of classifying organisms” (E. Mayr 1966). 3