“You‟ll Never Walk Alone” The Use of Brand Equity Frameworks to Explore the Team Identification of the „Satellite Supporter‟ Anthony K. Kerr Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Faculty of Business, University of Technology, Sydney June, 2009 CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP/ORIGINALITY I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text. I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis. Signature of Student __________________________________ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude and appreciation to a number of key individuals. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors, Associate Professors, Paul Jonson and Bruce Hayllar, for their support and words of encouragement, and Sport Knowledge Australia for their financial support. I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Narelle Smith (Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney) and Associate Professor, Jay Gladden (Department of Sport Management, University of Massachusetts): Narelle, for her youthful enthusiasm as she helped me to make sense of the data and Jay, for his friendship and constant encouragement for my somewhat „radical‟ ideas. On a more personal note, special thanks go to those closest to me. To my mother, who has always given me endless support and encouragement and my sister, who has never been surprised by my achievements, or antics, over the years. For my nephew, I hope that you harness your unbridled energy and develop a lifelong love of learning. To my closest friends, Mick, Tracey, Brent, Chrystee and Matt, your friendship and support is always appreciated. Thanks for the many late-night chats, road trips and laughs through the years – you are a large part of the document you now hold in your hands. Those who know me best know that my favourite film is „Jerry Maguire‟. A successful sports agent questions his direction in life and pens a mission statement – „The Things We Think and Do Not Say‟. “Sports”, a younger Tom Cruise writes, “may never be the pure and simple thing that older men pine for. That ball park in the corn fields of Field of Dreams is, of course, a fantasy that lives in the mind. Sports is a huge operation, always was, but for now that fact is no longer a secret” (Crowe 2003). However, little produces such “an extreme level of breathless delight and helpless despair as swiftly as the movement of a ball across a pitch, chased by two rival teams of 11 players” (Kervin 2008). This is why sport remains an important part of my life and consequently fuelled my enthusiasm for this project. I would therefore like to sincerely thank those supporters who willingly gave of their time to share their thoughts and experiences. For those Reds supporters who showed such passion and pride for „the Liverpool way‟, I hope that in 2009 you get to celebrate that elusive English Premier League title. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF TABLES xiii GLOSSARY AND LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv ABSTRACT xvi PUBLICATIONS AND CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS ARISING FROM THE DOCTORAL RESEARCH xviii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Background to the Research 3 1.2.1. The Age of „Sportainment‟ 5 1.2.2. The Age of Globalisation 7 1.2.3. The Age of Foreign Fandom 9 1.2.4. The Age of Branding 12 1.3. The Research Problem 14 1.4. Justification for the Research 16 1.5. Methodology and Research Design 16 1.6. The Thesis Outline 19 1.7. Definition of Terms 20 1.8. Chapter Review 23 CHAPTER TWO: AN EXAMINATION OF SPORTS FANDOM 24 2.1. Introduction 24 2.2. Notions of Sports Fandom 24 2.3. Sports Spectator Motives 26 2.4. Exploring Sports Team Identification 29 iv 2.4.1. Psychological Factors: Community Affiliation 30 2.4.2. Environmental Factors: Socialisation 32 2.4.3. Team-Related Factors 34 Team Performance 34 Player Attributes 37 Organisational Characteristics 38 2.5. Social Identity Theory 43 2.5.1. Categorisation 44 2.5.2. Identification 45 Geographic Identity 47 National Identity 48 Ethnic Identity 49 Religious Identity 51 2.5.3. Comparison 52 In-Group and Out-Group Bias 53 Self-Esteem Enhancement/Protection 54 2.5.4. Relevance to the Satellite Supporter 59 2.6. Chapter Review 60 CHAPTER THREE: BRAND EQUITY AND THE SPORTS TEAM 63 3.1. Introduction 63 3.2. Brand Equity 64 3.2.1. The Development of Brand Equity 65 3.2.2. Brand Equity and the Sports Team: Conceptual Frameworks 65 Team-Related Antecedents 66 Organisation-Related Antecedents 67 Market-Related Antecedents 68 Consequences of Brand Equity 68 3.2.3. Application to the Professional Sports Team 69 A North American Perspective 70 A European Perspective 71 3.3. Brand Equity in a Global Sports Marketplace 73 v 3.3.1. Team-Related Antecedents 74 Success 75 Star Player(s) 75 Head Coach 77 3.3.2. Organisation-Related Antecedents 77 Conference and League 78 Stadium or Arena 78 Sponsor Alignment 79 Reputation and Tradition 80 Product Delivery 81 Logo Design and Name 81 Affiliated Others and Celebrity Fans 82 3.3.3. Market-Related Antecedents 82 Geographic Location 83 Competitive Forces 83 International Media Arrangements 84 Existing Brand Community 84 3.3.4. Consequences of Brand Equity 86 3.4. Support for the Brand Equity Antecedents 88 3.5. Brand Equity and Team Identification: A Synthesis 89 3.5.1. The Proposed Relationship 90 3.5.2. Dimensions of Brand Equity 91 3.5.3. Team Identification and Consumption 93 3.5.4. Proposed Link: Antecedents and Perceived Quality 94 3.5.5. Proposed Link: Antecedents and Brand Associations 96 3.5.6. Proposed Link: Consequences and Team Identification 98 3.5.7. The Relationship: An Overview 100 3.6. Chapter Review 105 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY 108 4.1. Introduction 108 4.2. The Research Methodology 109 4.3. The Case Study Approach: a Rationale 109 vi 4.3.1. The Case Selection 112 4.4. The Research Design: Mixed Methods 114 4.4.1. Quantitative Methods 116 4.4.2. Qualitative Methods 117 4.5. The Multiple Methods 119 4.6. The Questionnaire Survey 120 4.6.1. Overview 120 4.6.2. Study One – An „Exploratory‟ Pilot Survey 122 Participants 122 Materials and Procedure 123 4.6.3. Study Two – The Team Pilot Survey 124 Participants 125 Materials and Procedure 126 4.6.4. Study Three – The Liverpool F.C. Global Survey 127 Participants 128 Materials and Procedure 128 4.7. Semi-Structured Interviews 129 Participants 130 Materials and Procedure 130 4.8. Methods of Data Analysis 132 4.8.1. Quantitative Data 132 Sample Size 133 Factor Loading 133 Communality 133 Rotation 134 Number of Factors 134 4.8.2. Qualitative Data 135 4.9. Limitations of the Research Design 136 4.9.1. The Retrospective Nature of Fandom 136 4.9.2. Self-Selection Bias 136 4.9.3. Generalisation of Findings 137 4.10. Situating the Case Study: the Liverpool F.C. Story 138 4.10.1. The Early Years (1892-1919) 140 vii 4.10.2. The Post-War Years (1920-1958) 141 4.10.3. The Shankly Years (1959-1974) 141 4.10.4. The Glory Years (1975-1983) 142 4.10.5. Triumph and Tragedy (1984-1997) 143 4.10.6. The Globalisation of the Liverpool F.C. (1998-2004) 145 4.10.7. The Emergence of a Global Brand? (2004-Present) 146 4.11. Chapter Review 149 CHAPTER FIVE: QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS 151 5.1. Introduction 151 5.2. The Exploratory (AFANA) Pilot Survey 151 5.2.1. The Participants 151 5.2.2. The Creation of Team Identification 152 5.2.3. Continued (and Possible Cessation) of Team Identification 154 5.2.4. Sports Consumption Behaviour 156 5.3. The Team-Specific (Ajax F.C.) Pilot Survey 157 5.3.1. The Participants 157 5.3.2. The Creation of Team Identification 160 5.3.3. Continued (and Possible Cessation) of Team Identification 162 5.3.4. Sports Consumption Behaviour 163 5.4. The Liverpool F.C. Survey 167 5.4.1. The Participants 167 5.4.2. The Creation of Team Identification 169 Satellite Supporters vs. Expatriate Fans 169 Norwegian vs. Non-Norwegian Satellite Supporters 170 Satellite Supporters: Miscellaneous Reasons 171 5.4.3. First-Tier Themes 174 Media Coverage 175 Style of Play 176 Presence of Particular Player(s) 176 Team Success 176 History of Success 177 Participation in the Highest Division 177 viii Stadium 178 5.4.4. Second-Tier Themes 178 History of Ethical Behaviour 179 Broadcast Quality of Games 179 Logo Design and/or Name 180 Family or Friend Support 180 Presence of a Particular Manager 181 5.4.5. Third-Tier Themes 181 Famous or Celebrity Fans 182 A „Connection‟ to England 182 Presence of a Fellow Countryman 182 High-Profile and/or Quality Sponsors 184 5.4.6. Factor Analysis 184 5.4.7. Continued (and Possible Cessation) of Team Identification 187 5.4.8. Sports Consumption Behaviour 190 5.5. Chapter Review 195 CHAPTER SIX: INTERVIEW RESULTS 197 6.1. Introduction 197 6.2. Satellite Supporter Interviews 197 6.2.1. The Participants 197 6.3. The Creation of Team Identification 199 6.4. Major Themes 201 6.4.1. Media Coverage: “You Have to See Them Somewhere” 201 6.4.2. Family or Friend Support: “Just Natural to Cheer for Them” 203 6.4.3. Presence of Particular Player(s): “He was an Idol” 204 6.4.4. Style of Play: “Football is Entertainment” 206 6.4.5. Participation in the Highest Division: “Among the Elite” 208 6.4.6. Team Success: “Everyone Likes Winners” 209 6.4.7. Presence of a Fellow Countryman: “Good to See One of Your Own Doing Well” 212 ix 6.5. Minor Themes 214 6.5.1. Merchandise: “It Started Out with Just a Football and a Postcard” 214 6.5.2. A „Connection‟ to England: “I Just Loved My Time in the UK” 215 6.5.3. Club History: “The Big Triumphs and the Tragedies” 215 6.5.4. History of Success: “They Did Rule the 80‟s” 216 6.5.5. History of Ethical Behaviour: “They Don‟t Stand for Any BS” 217 6.5.6. Game Atmosphere: “The Atmosphere is Fantastic” 219 6.5.7. The „Liverpool Way‟: “It Was Something Special – The Liverpool Way” 220 6.6. Chapter Review 221 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 223 7.1. Introduction 223 7.2. Social Identity Theory and the Satellite Supporter 223 7.2.1. Social Identification and Team Identification 226 7.2.2. Social Identification and Brand Equity 227 7.2.3. A „Theoretical Lens‟ to Examine Foreign Fandom 227 In-Group Bias 228 Self-Esteem Enhancement/Protection 229 7.2.4. Brand Equity and Team Identification 231 7.2.5. The Creation of Team Identification for Satellite Supporters 232 Media Coverage 233 Team-Related Qualities 234 Organisation-Related Qualities 236 7.2.6. The Predictive Nature of the Revised Brand Equity Framework 237 7.2.7. Brand Community and the Psychological Benefits of Fandom 242 7.2.8. The Re-Emergence of the „Satellite Fan‟ 246 7.3. Conclusion 248 7.3.1. Limitations and Future Research 250 x