Copyright © 2015 Richard Stoneman All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the publishers. For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, please contact: U.S. Office: [email protected] www.yalebooks.com Europe Office: [email protected] www.yalebooks.co.uk Typeset in Sabon by IDSUK (DataConnection) Ltd Printed in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stoneman, Richard. Xerxes: a Persian life/Richard Stoneman. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-300-18007-7 (cl: alk. paper) 1. Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.–465 B.C. or 464 B.C. 2. Iran—Kings and rulers—Biography. 3. Iran—History—To 640. I. Title. DS283.S76 2015 937’.705092—dc23 [B] 2015017637 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Frontispiece: Seal of Xerxes from Dascyleion. After Kaptan 2002. Contents List of Illustrations Preface Introduction 1 Accession 2 The Persian Empire 3 The Image of a King 4 The Religion of Xerxes 5 Invasion (I): The Cornerstone of Greek Freedom 6 Invasion (II): The Wooden Walls 7 Persepolis 8 Family Romances 9 Assassination Conclusion Appendix 1 Xerxes in Opera and Drama Appendix 2 The Birth of Persian Kings Appendix 3 The Chronology of Xerxes’ Advance through Greece Abbreviations Notes Bibliography Index Illustrations PLATES 1 Frontispiece to Colley Cibber, Xerxes, London 1736. 2 The Treasury Relief, currently in the Tehran Museum. 3 Detail from the Treasury Relief: the petitioner, perhaps thehazarapatiš, or another court dignitary. 4 Pasargadae: view from Tell-i-Takht. 5 The Zendan-i-Suleiman (Prison of Solomon) at Pasargadae 6 The Qa’aba of Zoroaster at Naqsh-i-Rustam, near Persepolis. 7 Relief from the Tripylon at Persepolis: lion attacking bull. 8 A gold armlet from the Oxus Treasure, currently in the British Museum. 9 Gold rhyton (pouring vessel), currently in the Tehran Museum. 10 Hunting relief from Celaenae, currently in the Çanakkale Museum. 11 Relief of musician and warriors from the ‘Polyxena tomb’, currently in the Çanakkale Museum. 12 Taşkule, the ‘stone tower’, Foça, Turkey. 13 The trilingual inscription from the Letoön (Sanctuary of Leto) near Xanthos, Turkey. 14 Coins of the Persian Empire. (a) Gold siglos of Darius the Great © BibleLandPictures.com/Alamy. (b) Silver coin of Shapur I. (c) Coin of Mazaeus. 15 Tiled floor in the palace of Darius I at Susa. 16 The Tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae. 17 Hunting relief from Taq-e-Bostan near Kermanshah. 18 A Magus, or Zoroastrian priest. 19 Relief from the tomb of Darius I at Naqsh-e-Rustam: the king before a fire- altar. 20 Cypress tree at Abarkuh. 21 Xerxes’ ‘daeva-inscription’, currently in the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. 22 A winged disk from a pilaster at Persepolis. 23 H. Fletcher, an engraving of Babylon, 1690. 24 The Hellespont: view from the south. 25 Thermopylae: the Leonidas monument. 26 Thermopylae: general view 27 The Persian army, engraving from Samuel Pitiscus’ edition of Q. Curtius Rufus, Historia Alexandri Magni, Utrecht 1683. 28 The present-day ruins of Sardis. 29 A map of the island and straits of Salamis. 30 The battlefield of Plataea: view to the north. 31 The approach to Persepolis. 32 Gateway of All Lands. 33 Ganj-nameh on the outskirts of Hamadan, Iran. 34 Reliefs from the Apadana at Persepolis. 35 Detail of a Bactrian with an urn. 36 View of Persepolis from Kuh-i-Rahmat. 37 The king and attendants depicted on a door jamb of the Palace of Xerxes. 38 A rendering of the Gateway of All Lands, engraving by Johan van den Avele from Samuel Pitiscus’ edition of Q. Curtius Rufus, Historia Alexandri Magni, Utrecht 1683. 39 Cornelius De Bruyn, engraving from Travels in the Levant, 1698. 40 Charles Chipiez, Darius’ ‘original plan’ for Persepolis. 41 Mirza Hassan Akasbashi, photograph of Persepolis before excavation 1859. 42 Photograph of the Apadana after excavation, 1933. 43 Claeissens, Anthuenis, Esther before King Ahasuerus with Haman being sent to the Gallows beyond, 1577. Private Collection Photo © Bonhams, London, UK Bridgeman Images. 44 Erich Schmidt, Xerxes I tomb at Naqsh-e-Rustam. MAPS 1 The Persian Empire 2 The Road to Thermopylae 1 3 The Road to Thermopylae 2 4 The Hellespont TABLES 1 The Family of Xerxes 2 The Legendary Genealogy of the Persian Kings 3 Tabari’s Version of the Genealogy of the Persian Kings 4 The Families of Spitama and Cyrus 1 Frontispiece to Colley Cibber, Xerxes (London 1736). 2 The Treasury Relief, Tehran Museum. The king (probably Xerxes, but possibly Darius), seated, receives petitioners. Behind him stand a guard and a priest.