Writing Arguments A Rhetoric with Readings Tenth Edition John D. Ramage Arizona State University John C. Bean Seattle University June Johnson Seattle University Boston Columbus Hoboken Indianapolis New York San Francisco Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Senior Acquisitions Editor: Brad Potthoff (Tom Grundy/Shutterstock); Urban Program Manager: Anne Shure teenagers using multimedia devices (Csondy, Development Editor: Kassi Radomski Getty); American Female Soldier in combat Product Marketing Manager: Ali Arnold uniform saluting a flag at sunset (Steve Cukrov/ Field Marketing Manager: Mark Robinson Shutterstock); Working bees on honey cells Executive Digital Producer: Stefanie A. Snajder (Kotomiti Okuma/Shutterstock). Content Specialist: Erin Jenkins Photo Research: QBS Learning Project Manager: Savoula Amanatidis Senior Manufacturing Buyer: Roy L. Project Coordination, Text Design, and Page Pickering, Jr. Makeup: Integra Printer and Binder: R. R. Donnelley and Sons Program Design Lead and Cover Designer: Company–Crawfordsville Barbara Atkinson Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color Cover Images: Clockwise from top left: Drill rig set Corporation–Hagerstown up for winter drilling in Wyoming Text Font: 10.5/12 Minion Pro Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on pages 562–566, which constitute an extension of this copyright page. PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, and MyWritingLab are exclusive trademarks in the United States and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ramage, John D. Writing arguments: a rhetoric with readings / John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, June Johnson. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-321-90673-1 (student edition) 1. English language—Rhetoric. 2. Persuasion (Rhetoric) 3. College readers. 4. Report writing. I. Bean, John C. II. Johnson, June III. Title. PE1431.R33 2014 808’.0427—dc23 2014018668 Copyright © 2016, 2012, and 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. 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For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1—DOC—18 17 16 15 Complete Edition ISBN-10: 0-321-90673-X ISBN-13: 978-0-321-90673-1 Brief Edition ISBN-10: 0-321-96427-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-321-96427-4 Concise Edition ISBN-10: 0-321-96428-4 www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-13: 978-0-321-96428-1 Brief Contents Part One Overview of Argument 1 1 Argument: An Introduction 2 2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring 17 Part Two Writing an Argument 51 3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 52 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 67 5 Using Evidence Effectively 88 6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 104 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 121 Part Three Analyzing Arguments 153 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 154 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 175 Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims 209 10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims 210 11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments 220 12 Causal Arguments 248 13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments 278 14 Proposal Arguments 304 Part Five The Researched Argument 339 15 Finding and Evaluating Sources 340 16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 359 17 Citing and Documenting Sources 375 Appendix Informal Fallacies 397 Part Six An Anthology of Arguments 405 The Future of Food and Farming 406 Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters 432 Immigration in the Twenty-First Century 460 Millennials Entering Adulthood 477 Choices for a Sustainable World 499 Digital Literacies 519 Argument Classics 542 iii Detailed Contents Preface xxii Acknowledgments xxviii Part One Overview of Argument 1 1 Argument: An Introduction 2 What Do We Mean by Argument? 2 Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel 2 Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate 3 Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit 3 JUAn LUCAS (STUDEnT), “An Argument Against Banning Phthalates” 5 A student opposes a ban on a chemical that makes toys soft and flexible. The Defining Features of Argument 7 Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims 8 Argument Is Both a Process and a Product 10 Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion 10 Argument and the Problem of Truth 12 Conclusion 16 2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring 17 Finding Issues to Explore 18 Do Some Initial Brainstorming 18 Be Open to the Issues All around You 18 Explore Ideas by Freewriting 22 Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping 23 Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game 24 Reading Texts Rhetorically 25 Genres of Argument 25 Authorial Purpose and Audience 29 Determining Degree of Advocacy 31 Reading to Believe an Argument’s Claims 32 JAMES SUROWIECkI, “The Pay Is Too Damn Low” 33 An American journalist argues for an increased federally mandated minimum wage combined with government policies to promote job growth and ensure a stable safety net for the poor. iv Detailed Contents v Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe 34 Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer’s Views 37 Reading to Doubt 37 Thinking Dialectically 38 MICHAEL SALTSMAn, “To Help the Poor, Move Beyond ‘Minimum’ Gestures” 40 The chief economist for the Employment Policy Institute opposes an increased minimum wage, arguing that it does nothing for the jobless poor and will in fact lead to increased joblessness. Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking 41 Conclusion 42 Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay 42 Reading 44 TRUDIE MAkEnS (STUDEnT), “Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?” 44 Examining articles by Surowiecki, Saltsman, and others, a student narrates the evolution of her thinking as she researches the issue of minimum wage. Part Two Writing an Argument 51 3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 52 The Classical Structure of Argument 52 Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle 54 Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument 56 Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question 56 How to Identify an Issue Question 57 Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument 58 Pseudo-Arguments: Committed Believers and Fanatical Skeptics 58 A Closer Look at Pseudo-Arguments: The Lack of Shared Assumptions 59 Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons 60 What Is a Reason? 60 Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses 62 Conclusion 65 Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements 65 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 67 An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an Argument? 67 Formal Logic versus Real-World Logic 67 The Role of Assumptions 68 vi Detailed Contents The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme 68 The Power of Audience-Based Reasons 70 Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System 71 Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument 76 Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes 76 Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games 80 CARMEn TIEU (STUDEnT), “Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls” 82 A student argues that playing violent video games helps girls gain insight into male culture. The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument 85 Conclusion 86 A Note on the Informal Fallacies 86 Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details 87 5 Using Evidence Effectively 88 Kinds of Evidence 88 The Persuasive Use of Evidence 92 Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence 92 Establish a Trustworthy Ethos 93 Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data 94 Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence 95 Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence 95 Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision 98 Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence 99 Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence 101 Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence 102 Conclusion 103 Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument 103 6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 104 Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview 104 How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility 106 How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions 107 Use Concrete Language 108 Use Specific Examples and Illustrations 109 Use Narratives 110 Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations 110 Detailed Contents vii Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments 111 Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 113 Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and kairos 115 How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 116 Conclusion 119 Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons 120 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 121 One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments 121 Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views 122 Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument 124 Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument 125 Summarizing Opposing Views 125 Refuting Opposing Views 126 Strategies for Rebutting Evidence 127 Conceding to Opposing Views 128 Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy 129 TRUDIE MAkEnS (STUDEnT), “Bringing Dignity To Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a Living Wage” 129 A student writer refutes three arguments against increasing the minimum wage. Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument 131 Creating a Dialogic Argument with a Delayed Thesis 132 ROSS DOUTHAT, “Islam in Two Americas” 133 A conservative columnist asks readers to explore aspects of American identity that suggest that Muslims should not build a community center near Ground Zero. Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument 135 A More Open-Ended Approach: Rogerian Communication 136 Rogerian Communication as Growth for the Writer 137 Rogerian Communication as Collaborative Negotiation 138 Writing Rogerian Communication 138 COLLEEn FOnTAnA (STUDEnT), “An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article ‘They never Learn’ ” 140 Using the strategies of Rogerian argument, a student writes an open letter about the problem of gun violence on college campuses to an advocate of minimal gun control laws and more guns. Conclusion 144 Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Rogerian Letter 145 viii Detailed Contents Readings 145 LAUREn SHInOzUkA (STUDEnT), “The Dangers of Digital Distractedness” (A Classical Argument) 145 Using the classical argument form, a student writer argues that being a skilled digital native also “harms us by promoting an unproductive habit of multitasking, by dehumanizing our relationships, and by encouraging a distorted self-image.” MOnICA ALLEn (STUDEnT), “An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article ‘High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap’ ” (Rogerian Communication) 149 Using the strategies of Rogerian communication, a student writer skeptical about charter schools initiates dialogue with a charter school advocate on ways to improve education for low-income and minority students. Part Three Analyzing Arguments 153 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 154 Thinking Rhetorically about a Text 154 Questions for Rhetorical Analysis 155 Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis 159 kATHRYn JEAn LOPEz, “Egg Heads” 159 Writing in 1998 for the conservative magazine National Review, Kathryn Jean Lopez argues against the emerging practice of egg donation enabled by new reproductive technology. Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads” 162 Conclusion 166 Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis 166 Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis 167 Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis 168 Readings 169 ELLEn GOODMAn, “Womb for Rent” 169 Columnist Ellen Goodman explores the ethical dilemmas created when first-world couples “outsource” motherhood to third-world women. zACHARY STUMPS (STUDEnT), “A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman’s ‘Womb for Rent’ ” 171 A student analyzes Ellen Goodman’s rhetorical strategies in “Womb for Rent,” emphasizing her delayed-thesis structure and her use of language with double meanings. 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 175 Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument 176 Use of Type 176 Use of Space or Layout 177 Detailed Contents ix An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements 178 Use of Color 180 Use of Images and Graphics 180 An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components 180 The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings 184 An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images 188 The Genres of Visual Argument 191 Posters and Fliers 192 Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements 194 Cartoons 197 Web Pages 198 Constructing Your Own Visual Argument 198 Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments 199 Using Information Graphics in Arguments 200 How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories 200 Using a Graph to Tell a Story 202 Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument 205 Conclusion 206 Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Data 207 Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims 209 10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims 210 The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development 210 Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example 213 Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes 213 Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to Real Cigarettes 214 Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes 215 Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments 215 Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments 216 An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument 217 ALEx HUTCHInSOn, “Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You” 217 Writing for an outdoor sports magazine targeting health and fitness enthusiasts, a journalist reviews the scientific literature against daily multivitamins and other supplements.