Working Towards Inclusive Education S O C I A L C O N T E X T S Peter Mittler Working Towards Inclusive Education S O C I A L C O N T E X T S Peter Mittler David Fulton Publishers 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 First published in Great Britain by David Fulton Publishers 2000 Reprinted 2001 (twice), 2003, 2004, 2005 Transferred to digital printing David Fulton Publishers is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © Peter Mittler 2000 Note: The right of Peter Mittler to be identi(cid:191) ed as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 1 85346 698 0 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Typeset by Kate Williams, Abergavenny Contents Acknowledgements v Introduction vii 1 From Exclusion To Inclusion 1 2 Global Dimensions 13 3 Early Years 29 4 Social Exclusion 47 5 Can Schools Prevent Learning Diffi culties? 61 6 Towards Inclusive Policies 81 7 Curriculum and Assessment 95 8 Towards Inclusive Practice 113 9 Preparing all Teachers to Teach all Pupils 133 10 Parents and Teachers 151 11 Into the Future: Tensions and Dilemmas 171 Abbreviations 191 References 193 Index 205 To my granddaughters, Ellie, Anna, Freya and Marlie. May they live in a more inclusive society Acknowledgements I owe a debt of gratitude to many people who have helped to change and develop my ideas over the years. High on the list are young people with dif(cid:191) culties and disabilities who have succeeded ‘against all odds’ and who made me wonder how many others might also follow their example, if only they were given the oppor- tunity. Early in my career, Jack Tizard showed me by his example how research could be harnessed to in(cid:192) uence public policy and I learned from Gunnar Dybwad how scholarship and advocacy could be integrated. I have learned much from my students and from parents in many countries. Of the many colleagues with whom I have had the privilege to work, I want to single out Mel Ainscow for special thanks, not least for his perceptive comments on the (cid:191) rst draft of this book. My greatest debt is to my wife Penny who has helped me at every turn not only by sharing her professional knowledge and experience but by sharpening my vision of what is possible and what has to be. Introduction Explanations I owe the reader a word of explanation about where this book has come from and what position it is taking. At a time when inclusion is on everyone’s lips and lap- tops, this is the least I can do. Having spent the past 40 years working in and around universities, I should perhaps begin by saying it is not a ‘review of the literature’ about inclusion and makes no attempt to balance the evidence for and against ordinary and special schools. This task has challenged generations of scholars and researchers but has not given us clear messages to send to policy makers. This is not the fault of the researchers but is a re(cid:192) ection of the immense complexity of the subject and the impossibility of unravelling its many strands in ways that make sense to those who have to make decisions. In any case, many of these studies were about integration, not inclusion, and are therefore now of largely historical interest. Policies change not because politicians are waiting for researchers to say the word but because society demands change. Researchers no longer need to weigh the evidence for and against something most countries have decided to do anyway. Their task is to evaluate the process as well as the outcomes of change and to address the question ‘What works in inclusive education?’ (Sebba with Sachdev 1997). How can we interpret and apply the knowledge that is already there? How can we best learn from experience? It is time to move on. The endless debates and the streams of publications about ‘integration versus segregation’ for a minority of children have been overtaken by a new agenda, which is about human rights and about the kind of society and the kind of schools we want for all our children. Because inclusion is not only about schools but about society, the book has a lot to say about the social contexts of the inclusion debate and in particular about poverty and its effect on learning and development. Inclusion is not about placing children in mainstream schools. It is about chang- ing schools to make them more responsive to the needs of all children. It is about helping all teachers to accept responsibility for the learning of all children in their school and preparing them to teach those children who are currently excluded from their school, for whatever reason. It concerns all children who are not bene(cid:191) ting viii WORKING TOWARDS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION from schooling, not just those who are labelled as having ‘special educational needs’. When I began my professional career, some 30,000 children were still regarded as ineducable; many were living very isolated and unstimulating lives in long stay hospitals with very little to do all day. Conditions for adults with what we now call learning disabilities were even worse. Today, there are no children left in such hospitals and the number of adults is a fraction of what it was. If anyone had told me then that the day would come when children with severe intellectual impairments would not only attend ordinary schools but succeed in passing the ordinary school leaving examinations, I would not have believed them. By the same token, I would not have expected to meet adults with intellectual d isabilities living in ordinary houses, holding down a job, having a family, lob- bying members of parliament or addressing the United Nations. All these things, and many more, have happened to some and could have happened to many more if the opportunities had been made available and if there were enough people to turn the vision into a reality. I have learned a great deal from research but I have learned more from the achievements of people of whom little or nothing was expected by anyone, myself included. I have come to believe that the main obstacles to change lie in ourselves, in our attitudes and fears, in our tendency to underestimate people and to exagger- ate the dif(cid:191) culties and disappointments they might encounter if they ‘failed’. But this is to slip into the language of ‘we’ and ‘them’: hardly the words that build an inclusive society or an inclusive school. Inclusion is about everyone being able to have opportunities for choice and self-determination. In education it means listening to and valuing what children have to say, regardless of age or labels. But as a society, we have not distinguished o urselves in listening to children, despite legislation such as the Children Act 1989 and the Education Act 1981. When it comes to choice of school, it is always others who know what is ‘in the child’s best interest’. Children in residential care who have tried to report persistent abuse have been ignored or punished and some have had to wait 20 years for their stories to be accepted by a public inquiry. Despite help lines and clearer procedures, children are afraid to disclose abuse because they know the consequences to themselves and to their families. A great deal has been done to improve the quality of provision but professionals do not always ap- preciate how powerful they are. A guide to the book The underlying theme of the book as a whole is the pervasive in(cid:192) uence of poverty and social disadvantage as forces of exclusion. Every teacher working in areas of poverty has (cid:191) rsthand experience of their effects on the learning and development INTRODUCTION ix of children but we know very little about the processes involved. If we did, we might by now have made more progress in weakening the link between poverty and underachievement. In search of de(cid:191) nitions, Chapter 1 summarises the growing consensus about the essential differences between inclusion and integration. It makes a link between inclusion as a process of school reform and the human rights argument based on the social model of disability, which stresses that it is society and its institutions that create barriers to participation. Exclusion from school and outmoded, exclu- sionary terminology are prime examples of this. Because inclusion is not just about what happens in schools, this book aims to set issues around inclusion in a series of wider social and international con- texts. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the impact of various United Nations (UN) i nitiatives which aim to promote Education for All (EFA) and to ensure that c hildren with learning dif(cid:191) culties and disabilities are fully included in these initia- tives. It concludes with brief vignettes from Lesotho and Italy. Chapter 3 summarises the radical changes to the planning and delivery of early years provision, including support for families and young children living in ar- eas of poverty, building on earlier work such as Portage and Headstart, and asks whether and how these services will reach all families in need. Chapter 4 looks in greater detail at social and health as well as educational inequalities in British s ociety and their impact on vulnerable children, such as those who are in the care of local authorities and those who are the victims of physical, sexual and emotional abuse. Chapter 5 considers the impact of new government initiatives designed to r educe exclusions and truancy, such as Education Action Zones and Excellence in Cities which are aimed at areas of disadvantage, as well as more general reforms aimed at all children such as the Literacy and Numeracy Strategies. It also raises questions about the relationship between inclusion and the school effectiveness and improvement movement and the impact of these developments on children who are underachieving or failing. Chapter 6 looks more closely at the government’s policies for inclusion as set out in the Programme of Action, and questions whether the proposed revisions to the Code of Practice on the Identi(cid:191) cation and Assessment of Special Educa- tional Needs (Department for Education (DfE) 1994) are consistent with inclu- sive policies. Chapter 7 welcomes the revised National Curriculum as potentially more inclusive than its predecessors on the strength of its clear statements both on values and on inclusion, the relevance of the citizenship curriculum and the emphasis on promoting curriculum access within each subject area. On the other hand, it s uggests that the government should consider more radical alternatives to the present system of assessment and reporting, and particularly league tables in their present form. Chapter 8 considers what inclusive schools and classrooms might look like and x WORKING TOWARDS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION summarises some examples of inclusive practice as described by its practition- ers. It introduces the Index for Inclusion, which has now been sent to all schools and local education authorities (LEAs) in England as a vehicle for schools to consider where they are and where they would like to be. This chapter provides brief s ummaries of some of the ways in which schools have developed inclu- sive p ractice. These include differentiation, assessment and record keeping, col- laborative learning, collaborative teaching, peer teaching and the role of special educational needs coordinators (SENCOs), learning support assistants (LSAs) and external support staff such as educational psychologists and LEA advisory s ervices. The chapter ends with a discussion of the importance to inclusion of teachers’ attitudes and perceptions. Taking up the theme of teacher attitudes, Chapter 9 reviews the new opportu- nities for professional development that are becoming available to teachers and d iscusses ways in which the knowledge, skills and attitudes that may be needed by teachers at different stages of their career can be permeated by principles and p ractice necessary to work in inclusive settings. It suggests that staff develop- ment programmes should build on the skills that teachers already have to teach inclusively and aim to demystify the aura of expertise around special educators. The chapter reviews the work of the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) in develop- ing standards for newly quali(cid:191) ed teachers, head teachers, SENCOs and specialist teachers and considers how these can be related to the government’s new proposals for professional development for all teachers. Chapter 10 returns to the social and community contexts of inclusion and s uggests that the time has come for all schools to explore ways of working in closer partnership with parents and the local community and to renew their efforts to overcome the obstacles to doing so. This would bene(cid:191) t all children but particu- larly those experiencing dif(cid:191) culties. The chapter reviews examples of good prac- tice such as shared reading and considers how relationships between parents and teachers have changed over the years and the potential for further developments in this area as a result of the Code of Practice and the Parent Partnership schemes. As against this, the work of the SEN Tribunal has highlighted deep-rooted tensions between parents and local authorities in coming to an agreed decision about the needs of children. These go beyond the work of the tribunal itself and are system- wide and dif(cid:191) cult to resolve. The (cid:191) nal chapter looks to the future and highlights both the strengths and the tensions involved in embarking on the journey towards inclusion. The policy is based on political will and leadership from the centre and is re(cid:192) ected in a comprehensive and multifaceted programme of action, matched by resources that have not previously been available. But in the last analysis, inclusion depends on the d ay-to-day work of teachers in the classroom and their success in ensuring that all c hildren can participate in each lesson and in the life of the school as a whole. They in turn need to work in schools that are planned and managed along inclusive