Project Gutenberg's Woodworking for Beginners, by Charles Gardner Wheeler This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: Woodworking for Beginners A Manual for Amateurs Author: Charles Gardner Wheeler Release Date: August 30, 2013 [EBook #43604] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS *** Produced by Albert László, Mark Young, P. G. Máté and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) WOOD-WORKING FOR BEGINNERS A Manual for Amateurs BY CHARLES G. WHEELER, B.S. "Know what thou canst work at and work at it like a Hercules." Carlyle. WITH OVER 700 ILLUSTRATIONS G.P. Putnam's Sons New York and London The Knickerbocker Press 1900 Copyright, 1899 by CHARLES G. WHEELER The Knickerbocker Press, New York TO THE YOUTHFUL FOUNDERS OF "TOTLET TOWN" WITHOUT WHOSE INSPIRATION THIS BOOK WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN T PREFACE he aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things which they can profitably make of wood, and to start them in the way to work successfully. It is hoped that, in the case of boys, it may show them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy, and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all- round development. It is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, or boat-building. Although not intended primarily to impart skill in the use of tools (something which can only be acquired from experience and observation and cannot be taught by any book), still no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical information and experience. Many books which give directions for mechanical work (particularly those addressed to boys) have several serious faults, and can be grouped in three classes. Some seem to be written by practical workmen, who, however well fitted to do the work themselves, lack the pedagogical training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work with due regard to the mental and physical capacity, experience, and development of youth, or to the amateur's lack of experience in the rudiments of the subject. Others are written by teachers or amateurs who lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and experience in serious work. Others (and this last class is, perhaps, the worst of the three) seem to be made by compilers who have apparently been satisfied to sweep together, without requisite knowledge or sufficient moral purpose, whatever they may have found that would be interesting or attractive, without due regard to its real value. All these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers.[1] Effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these evils, to keep in line with the advanced educational ideas of the time, and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the teacher, the mechanic, the boy, and the amateur workman. The treatment is neither general nor superficial, but elementary, and no claim is made that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects; but it aims to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which will have to be unlearned. Great care (based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs) has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained worker of more mature years. It is hoped that from the variety of subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may seek—if not in the exact form desired, perhaps in some typical form or something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know. It is hoped and confidently believed that a work so comprehensive in scope and giving such a variety of designs, with detailed and practical directions for their execution, will be not merely novel, but may serve as a vade-mecum and ready-reference book for the amateur of constructive tastes. Charles G. Wheeler. Boston, June, 1899. CONTENTS PART I—A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS CHAPTER PAGE I—Introductory 1 II—Tools 9 III—Wood 29 IV—Working Drawings, Laying out the Work and Estimating 49 V—The Workshop 56 PART II—ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP VI—Introductory 103 VII—A Few Toys 106 VIII—Houses for Animals 126 IX—Implements for Outdoor Sports and Athletics 141 X—Furniture 175 XI—A Few Miscellaneous Operations 218 PART III—HOUSE-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS XII—Some Elementary Principles 238 [v] [vi] [vii] I XIII—Simple Summer Cottages 271 XIV—A Few Simple Structures 291 PART IV—BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS XV—A Few Simple Boats 298 PART V—TOOLS AND OPERATIONS XVI—The Common Hand-tools, and Some Every-day Operations, Alphabetically Arranged for Ready Reference 344 Appendix — Matters Relating to Wood, Suggestions about Working Drawings, etc. 507 Index 539 INTRODUCTORY NOTE t has seemed best to address parts of this book particularly to boys, because the majority of beginners are boys, because boys need more suggestions than men, and because a man can easily pick what he needs from a talk to boys (and perhaps be interested also), while it is usually unprofitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his degree of maturity. It is hoped, however, that the older reader also will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work (many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as the result of much costly experience) to be a material help to him. [viii] [ix] [1] W "It is not strength, but art obtains the prize, And to be swift is less than to be wise; 'Tis more by art, than force of numerous strokes." Homer, Iliad. WOOD-WORKING FOR BEGINNERS PART I A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY hen one has made up his mind to make something, he usually wants to begin work at once; so, as I wish you to read this chapter, I will make it quite short. There is a great deal in getting started right, and there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work, as of course you do. One thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing and pounding. The old Latin phrase, "Festina lente" (make haste slowly), is a capital motto for the beginner. Do not wait until your enthusiasm has oozed away, of course, but do stop long enough to think how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw. The workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually turns out good work, while the one who begins to work without any reflection (as boys, and even men, have been known to do) is apt to spend much of his time in undoing his work, and usually does not get through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first place.[2] If Homer, in the quotation at the head of this chapter, had been writing about the way boys' work is sometimes done, he might, perhaps, have reversed the positions of some of the words and made "swiftness" and "numerous strokes" the subjects of his emphasis. He has expressed well enough, however, the way that your work should be done, and it is one aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end. Do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exercises, like joints and odd pieces that do not belong to anything in particular, merely for practice. You will be much more apt to put the right spirit into your work when you make complete and useful articles, and you will get the same practice and experience in the end. There is no need, however, to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in the first place. Begin the process of learning by experience after you have learned what you can from the experience of others. Begin, so far as you can, where others have left off. Before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago. Have you read the books by Elijah Kellogg? The reason for speaking of these old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time, not so very long ago, when boys and their elders made all sorts of things which they buy to-day, and also because of the good idea they give of how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves than they do nowadays. The majority of the boys of that time, not merely on Casco Bay, where Mr. Kellogg places the scenes of his stories, but in hundreds of other places, had to make many things themselves or go without. Of course there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could afford (out of what we should call a quite limited variety), or to get the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed. But the majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time making them. The life they led made them capital "all-round" boys. They could turn their hands, and their heads too, to almost any kind of work, and do it pretty well. Boys did a good deal of whittling then. This habit, as you doubtless know, still clung to them after they grew up, and opening a jack-knife and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested, whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own firesides. You can see the same habit to-day in some places. The boys whittled splint-brooms of birch in Colonial days in almost every household.[3] Among some of the minor articles made by boys and young men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts, wooden rakes, wooden troughs for bread and for pigs, trays, trenchers, flails, rounds for ladders, bobbins, reels, cheese-boxes, butter-spats or-paddles, wooden traps, and dozens of other articles, not to speak of their handiwork in other materials than wood. [2] [3] [4] For that matter much of the same life can be found to-day in the remoter regions, and I have known young men brought up to this kind of life, who (within my recollection) have, as a matter of course, done all the farm work of good- sized cultivated farms with live stock, cut and hauled wood from their wood-lots, done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down and drying of fish, tended and mended their fish-nets, weirs, and lobster-traps, and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with their produce and back again with their supplies. They also built their sheds, barns, and houses, and part of their furniture, their dories, big scows, and capital sailboats; made their own oars and rigged their boats; made many of their farm tools and implements; built their waggons and "ironed" them, their ox-sleds and small sleds, and shod them; made some of their tools; did their own blacksmithing, mason-work, brick-laying, and painting; made their own shoes, and did I do not know how many other odd jobs—all with but a limited supply of common hand-tools. This work did not interfere with their going to school through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old, and they still found time for the usual recreations of the period. Now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through all that, even if he did not know much about Greek or calculus or was lacking in superficial polish. And it is only the truth to say that quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too, with success made all the more assured by their development in other ways, and many, in addition to all this, paid their way through college by teaching or other work. How did they do so much? Partly, I suppose, because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours. They did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to distract their minds. Partly because when they wanted something they knew they must make it or go without. They did not draw so much as we do now, but they did a great deal of observing. They examined things like what they were to make and asked questions, and, knowing that where they had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and again, they learned from their relatives and neighbours what was considered the best way to do their work, and having thought it out carefully they went at it with great energy. To-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing before some machine and doing some simple piece of work, requiring but little thought—the same thing over and over again, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, until he seems to become almost a part of the machine itself, and is not fitted for doing much else. That is the other extreme. Of course we get things cheaper (even if they do not last so long) because of the factory; but how about the workman? Which of these two types is the better-developed man? First you want to be well-developed all-round boys, so that you will not become machines or badly one-sided men. After that—each to his special bent, of course. Now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves, haul them to the mill to be sawed, or rive or saw or hew them ourselves, leave the wood to season, and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to make—because we no longer do that, but go instead to a lumber-yard and a mill and have a large part of the work done for us—it is a good thing for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact that all the advantage is not with us now, and to think what a capital gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and mind, not to speak of his morals. You could not go back to those days now if you wished to, of course (except, perhaps, when you go to some of the remoter regions in vacation), and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you have now and for all our time- saving contrivances, but the advantage depends partly on how you use the time saved from their laborious tasks, does it not? You can, however, get inspiration from the example of those older boys and from some of their methods, and can put their self-reliant, manly zeal, grit, and perseverance into your work, and have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction afterwards for having made them. This book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to proficiency in architecture, carpentry, cabinet- making, boat-building, toy-making, or any other art or science. It does not aim to cram you with facts, but merely to start you in the right way. It is for those of you who want to take off your coats, roll up your sleeves, and really make things, rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can easily do—or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you can do. It is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they would, or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to know are left out. It does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps leave you in the lurch at the most important points. I take it for granted that if you have any mechanical bent or interest in making things, as most boys have, and are any kind of a real live boy, you have the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up. In fact, I have even known boys, and possibly you may have, who, strange as it may seem, have had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber within reach in the effort to get started! What you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way—how to make things successfully and like a workman—is it not? Then, if you mean business, as I feel sure you do, and really want to make things, read the whole book through carefully, even if it is not bristling with interesting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your work. You will not find everything in it, but you cannot help learning something, and I hope you will find that it attends strictly to the business in hand and will give you a start in the right direction,—which is half the battle. "MAN IS A TOOL-USING ANIMAL.... HE CAN USE TOOLS, CAN DEVISE TOOLS; WITH THESE THE GRANITE MOUNTAIN MELTS INTO LIGHT DUST BEFORE HIM; HE KNEADS GLOWING IRON AS IF IT WERE SOFT PASTE; SEAS ARE HIS SMOOTH HIGHWAY, WINDS AND FIRE HIS UNWEARYING STEEDS. NOWHERE DO YOU FIND HIM WITHOUT TOOLS; WITHOUT TOOLS HE IS NOTHING—WITH TOOLS HE IS all."—CARLYLE, Sartor Resartus. [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Y Fig. 1. CHAPTER II TOOLS ou can do a great deal with very few tools. The bearing of this observation lies in "the application on it," as Jack Bunsby would say. Look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a jack-knife by sailors, prisoners, and other people who have time to kill in that way! Have you ever seen the Chinese artisans turning out their wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools? But of course we cannot spend time so lavishly on our work as they do, even if we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many generations. We cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws towards us or do turning out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe; carve a set of wonderful open-work hollow spheres, each within the other, out of one solid ball of ivory; and the rest of the queer things the Orientals do: but it is merely a matter of national individuality—the training of hundreds of generations. We could learn to do such things after a long time doubtless, but with no such wonderful adaptability as the Japanese, for instance, are showing, in learning our ways in one generation. Examine some of the exquisite work which the Orientals sell so cheaply and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a whole hardware- shop full of tools, and then see with what few simple and rude tools (like those shown in the following illustrations, or the simple drill, Fig. 1, still in use) the work has been done. Mr. Holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives of India as follows[4]: Fig. 2. "WHEN ANY PORTION OF HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE HAS TO BE TURNED, THE WOOD-TURNER IS SENT FOR; HE COMES WITH ALL HIS OUTFIT AND ESTABLISHES HIMSELF FOR THE OCCASION AT THE VERY DOOR OF HIS EMPLOYER. HE COMMENCES BY DIGGING TWO HOLES IN THE GROUND AT A DISTANCE SUITABLE TO THE LENGTH OF THE WORK, AND IN THESE HE FIXES TWO SHORT WOODEN POSTS, SECURING THEM AS STRONGLY AS HE CAN BY RAMMING THE EARTH AND DRIVING IN WEDGES AND STONES AROUND THEM. THE CENTRES, SCARCELY MORE THAN ROUND NAILS OR SPIKES, ARE DRIVEN THROUGH THE POSTS AT ABOUT EIGHT INCHES FROM THE GROUND, AND A WOODEN ROD, FOR THE SUPPORT OF THE TOOLS, IS EITHER NAILED TO THE POSTS OR TIED TO THEM BY A PIECE OF COIR OR COCOANUT ROPE. THE BAR, IF LONG, IS ADDITIONALLY SUPPORTED, AS REPRESENTED, BY BEING TIED TO ONE OR TWO VERTICAL STICKS DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND. DURING MOST OF HIS MECHANICAL OPERATIONS THE INDIAN WORKMAN IS SEATED ON THE GROUND, HENCE THE SMALL ELEVATION OF THE AXES OF HIS LATHE. THE BOY WHO GIVES MOTION TO THE WORK SITS OR KNEELS ON THE OTHER SIDE OF IT, HOLDING THE ENDS OF THE CORD WRAPPED AROUND it in his hands, pulling them alternately; the cutting being restricted to one half of the motion, that of the work towards the TOOL. THE TURNING TOOLS OF THE INDIAN ARE ALMOST CONFINED TO THE CHISEL AND GOUGE, AND THEIR HANDLES ARE LONG ENOUGH TO SUIT HIS DISTANT POSITION, WHILE HE GUIDES THEIR CUTTING EDGES BY HIS TOES. HE GRASPS THE BAR OR TOOL-REST WITH THE SMALLER TOES and places THE TOOL BETWEEN THE LARGE TOE AND ITS NEIGHBOUR, GENERALLY OUT OF CONTACT WITH THE BAR. THE INDIAN AND ALL OTHER TURNERS USING THE EASTERN METHOD ATTAIN A HIGH DEGREE OF PREHENSILE POWER WITH THE TOES, AND WHEN SEATED AT THEIR WORK NOT ONLY ALWAYS USE THEM TO GUIDE THE TOOL, BUT WILL SELECT INDIFFERENTLY THE HAND OR THE FOOT, WHICHEVER MAY HAPPEN TO BE THE NEARER, TO PICK UP OR REPLACE ANY SMALL TOOL OR OTHER OBJECT. THE LIMITED SUPPLY OF TOOLS THE INDIAN USES FOR WORKING IN WOOD IS ALSO REMARKABLE; THEY ARE OF THE MOST SIMPLE KIND AND HARDLY EXCEED THOSE REPRESENTED IN FIG. 2; THE MOST ESSENTIAL IN CONSTRUCTING AND SETTING UP HIS LATHE BEING THE SMALL, SINGLE-HANDED ADZE, THE BASSŌŌLĂH. WITH THIS HE SHAPES HIS POSTS AND DIGS THE HOLES; IT SERVES ON ALL OCCASIONS AS A HAMMER AND ALSO AS AN ANVIL WHEN THE EDGE IS FOR A TIME FIXED IN A BLOCK OF WOOD. THE OUTER SIDE OF THE CUTTING EDGE IS PERFECTLY FLAT, AND WITH IT THE WORKMAN WILL SQUARE OR FACE A BEAM OR BOARD WITH ALMOST AS MUCH PRECISION AS IF IT HAD BEEN PLANED; IN USING THE BASSŌŌLĂH FOR THIS LATTER PURPOSE THE work is generally placed in the forked stem of a tree, driven into the ground as shown in the illustration." If we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of wood-work turned out by the average wood-worker of this country or England with his great variety of tools and appliances and facilities, we might compare his work with that done by the Orientals without our appliances. Read what Professor Morse tells us of the Japanese carpenter[5]: "HIS TRADE, AS WELL AS OTHER TRADES, HAS BEEN PERPETUATED THROUGH GENERATIONS OF FAMILIES. THE LITTLE CHILDREN HAVE BEEN BROUGHT UP AMIDST THE ODOUR OF FRAGRANT SHAVINGS,—HAVE WITH CHILDISH HANDS PERFORMED THE DUTIES OF AN ADJUSTABLE VISE OR CLAMP; AND WITH THE SAME TOOLS WHICH WHEN CHILDREN THEY HAVE HANDED TO THEIR FATHERS, THEY HAVE IN LATER DAYS EARNED THEIR DAILY RICE. WHEN I SEE ONE OF OUR CARPENTERS' PONDEROUS TOOL-CHESTS, MADE OF POLISHED WOODS, INLAID WITH BRASS DECORATIONS, AND FILLED TO REPLETION WITH SEVERAL HUNDRED DOLLARS' WORTH OF HIGHLY POLISHED AND ELABORATE MACHINE-MADE IMPLEMENTS, AND CONTEMPLATE THE WORK OFTEN DONE WITH THEM,—WITH EVERYTHING BINDING THAT SHOULD GO LOOSE, AND EVERYTHING RATTLING THAT SHOULD BE TIGHT, AND MUCH WORK THAT HAS TO BE DONE TWICE OVER, WITH AN INDICATION EVERYWHERE OF A POVERTY OF IDEAS,—AND THEN RECALL THE JAPANESE CARPENTER WITH HIS RIDICULOUSLY LIGHT AND FLIMSY TOOL-BOX CONTAINING A MEAGRE ASSORTMENT OF RUDE AND PRIMITIVE TOOLS,—CONSIDERING THE CARPENTRY OF THE TWO PEOPLE, I AM FORCED TO THE CONVICTION THAT CIVILISATION AND MODERN APPLIANCES COUNT AS NOTHING UNLESS ACCOMPANIED WITH A MOIETY OF BRAINS AND SOME LITTLE TASTE AND WIT.... AFTER HAVING SEEN THE GOOD AND SERVICEABLE CARPENTRY, THE PERFECT JOINTS AND COMPLEX MORTISES, DONE BY GOOD JAPANESE WORKMEN, ONE IS ASTONISHED TO FIND THAT THEY DO THEIR WORK WITHOUT THE AID OF CERTAIN APPLIANCES CONSIDERED INDISPENSABLE BY SIMILAR CRAFTSMEN IN OUR COUNTRY. THEY HAVE NO BENCH, NO VISE, NO SPIRIT-LEVEL, AND NO BIT- STOCK; AND AS FOR LABOUR-SAVING MACHINERY, THEY HAVE ABSOLUTELY NOTHING. WITH MANY PLACES WHICH COULD BE UTILISED FOR WATER-POWER, THE OLD COUNTRY SAWMILL HAS NOT OCCURRED TO THEM. THEIR TOOLS APPEAR TO BE ROUGHLY MADE AND OF PRIMITIVE DESIGN, THOUGH EVIDENTLY OF THE BEST-TEMPERED STEEL. THE ONLY SUBSTITUTE FOR THE CARPENTER'S BENCH IS A PLANK ON THE FLOOR, OR ON TWO HORSES; A SQUARE, FIRM, UPRIGHT POST IS THE NEAREST APPROACH TO A BENCH AND VISE, FOR TO THIS BEAM A BLOCK OF [10] [11] [12] [13] Fig.3.—A JAPANESE CARPENTER'S VISE. From Morse's Japanese Homes. WOOD TO BE SAWED INTO PIECES IS FIRMLY HELD (FIG. 3). A BIG WOODEN WEDGE IS BOUND FIRMLY TO THE POST WITH A STOUT ROPE, and this driven down with vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into the desired proportions. "IN USING MANY OF THE TOOLS, THE JAPANESE CARPENTER HANDLES THEM QUITE DIFFERENTLY FROM OUR WORKMAN; FOR INSTANCE, HE DRAWS THE PLANE TOWARDS HIM INSTEAD OF PUSHING IT FROM HIM. THE PLANES ARE VERY RUDE-LOOKING IMPLEMENTS. THEIR BODIES, INSTEAD OF BEING THICK BLOCKS OF WOOD, ARE QUITE WIDE AND THIN (FIG. 4, D, E), AND THE BLADES ARE INCLINED AT A GREATER ANGLE THAN THE BLADE IN OUR PLANE. IN SOME PLANES, HOWEVER, THE BLADE STANDS VERTICAL; THIS IS USED IN LIEU OF THE STEEL SCRAPERS IN GIVING WOOD A SMOOTH FINISH, AND MIGHT BE USED WITH ADVANTAGE BY OUR CARPENTERS AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR THE PIECE OF GLASS OR THIN PLATE OF STEEL WITH WHICH THEY USUALLY SCRAPE THE SURFACE OF THE WOOD. A HUGE PLANE IS OFTEN SEEN, FIVE OR SIX FEET LONG. THIS PLANE, HOWEVER, IS FIXED IN AN INCLINED POSITION, UPSIDE DOWN; THAT IS, WITH THE BLADE UPPERMOST. THE BOARD, OR PIECE TO BE PLANED, IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UPON IT. DRAW-SHAVES ARE IN COMMON USE. THE SAWS ARE OF VARIOUS KINDS, WITH TEETH MUCH LONGER THAN THOSE OF OUR SAWS, AND CUT IN DIFFERENT WAYS.... SOME SAWS HAVE TEETH ON THE BACK AS WELL AS ON THE FRONT, ONE EDGE BEING USED AS A CROSS-CUT SAW (FIG. 4, B, C). THE HAND-SAW, INSTEAD OF HAVING THE CURIOUS LOOP-SHAPED HANDLE MADE TO ACCOMMODATE ONLY ONE HAND, AS WITH US, HAS A SIMPLE STRAIGHT CYLINDRICAL HANDLE AS LONG AS THE SAW ITSELF, AND SOMETIMES LONGER. OUR CARPENTERS ENGAGE ONE HAND IN HOLDING THE STICK TO BE SAWED WHILE DRIVING THE SAW WITH THE OTHER HAND; THE JAPANESE CARPENTER, ON THE CONTRARY, HOLDS THE PIECE WITH HIS FOOT, AND STOOPING OVER, WITH HIS TWO HANDS DRIVES THE SAW BY QUICK AND RAPID CUTS THROUGH THE WOOD. THIS STYLE OF WORKING AND DOING MANY OTHER THINGS COULD NEVER BE ADOPTED IN THIS COUNTRY WITHOUT AN IMPORTATION OF JAPANESE BACKS.... THE ADZE IS PROVIDED WITH A ROUGH HANDLE BENDING CONSIDERABLY AT THE LOWER END, NOT UNLIKE A HOCKEY-STICK (FIG. 4, A).... FOR DRILLING HOLES A VERY LONG-HANDLED AWL IS USED. THE CARPENTER SEIZING THE HANDLE AT THE END, BETWEEN THE PALMS OF HIS HANDS, AND MOVING HIS HANDS RAPIDLY BACK AND FORTH, PUSHING DOWN AT THE SAME TIME, THE AWL IS MADE RAPIDLY TO ROTATE BACK AND FORTH; AS HIS HANDS GRADUALLY SLIP DOWN ON THE HANDLE HE QUICKLY SEIZES IT AT THE UPPER END AGAIN, CONTINUING THE MOTION AS BEFORE. ONE IS ASTONISHED TO SEE HOW RAPIDLY HOLES ARE DRILLED IN THIS SIMPLE YET effective way. For large holes, augers similar to ours are used." Fig. 4.—CARPENTERS' TOOLS IN COMMON USE. From Morse's Japanese Homes. When you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools (as most workmen are at times), you will quickly realise how much you can do with very few in case of necessity, and will more fully appreciate the skill of those Eastern people who do so much with so little. We do not need so many hand-tools for wood-work as our grandfathers and our great-grandfathers, although we make a greater variety of things, because machinery now does so much of the work for us. Wood-workers of fifty years ago had, for instance, dozens of planes for cutting all sorts of grooves, mouldings, and the like, which are now worked by machine at the nearest mill. Suggestions about Buying.—Do not start in by buying a chest of tools, certainly not one of the small cheap sets. They are not necessarily poor, but are very apt to be. Get a few tools at a time as you need them. In that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory way. Besides the fact that you can do good work with few tools there are various reasons which make it better to begin with but few. You will probably take better care of a few than of many. If you have thirty chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one you are using, there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining twenty-nine that will answer your purpose, and before you realise it have a whole rack full of dull tools. If you have but few chisels, you will be compelled to sharpen them, and so get into the habit of taking proper care of them—not to speak of the time which is often wasted in putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily. The longer you work the more you will get to rely on a small number of tools only, however many you may have at hand for occasional use. After you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your favourite tools, and find that certain tools do better work in your hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the purpose, and you will naturally favour the use of those particular implements, which is another less important reason for not starting in with too great a variety. I do not mean that you will imagine you can do better with one tool than another, but that you really can do so. That is where individuality comes in—the "personal equation." Watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work. See how few tools he spreads before him, and how much he does with the one in his hand before he lays it down for another. You would think it would take twenty-five tools, perhaps, to cut such a design, but the carver may have only about half a dozen before him. He gets right into the spirit of what he is doing, and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept breaking off to select others. This shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward the execution of good work, which is one reason for learning to use a few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can advantageously be put. In short, if you have but few tools at first you get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself. Now I do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a large kit of tools, or that you should not have the proper tools for the various operations, and use them. I mean that you should get your tools gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be done, and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they seem to be fine things to have, or because some carpenter has them in his chest. [14] [15] [16] [17] Do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in books and magazines—the "tools necessary for beginners," "a list of tools for boys," etc. Such lists are necessarily arbitrary. To make a short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men or the one hundred best books. When you can find half a dozen independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin your faith to them. The most experienced or learned people cannot agree exactly in such matters. It depends somewhat, for one thing, on what kind of work you begin with, and, of course, somewhat upon yourself also. Now while, as we have seen, most wonderful work can be done with the most primitive tools, the fact remains that you are neither Chinese nor Japanese, but Americans and English, and you cannot work to the best advantage without certain tools. "Well, what are they? Why don't you give us a list to begin with? That's what we are looking for." Simply because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves. Just as the great majority of boys would agree upon Robinson Crusoe, for instance, as belonging in the front rank of boys' books, but would make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books, so there are a few "universal" tools, upon the importance of which all agree, such as the saw, hammer, hatchet or axe, and a few others; but beyond these few you can have as many "lists" as you can find people to make them, up to the point of including all you are likely to want. So let your list make itself as you go along, according to your own needs. It is safe to say, however, that if your work is to be at all varied, such as is given in this book, for instance, you cannot get along to good advantage for any length of time without a rule, a try-square, a straight-edge, a knife, two or three chisels, a hatchet, a gouge, a smoothing-plane, a spoke-shave, a panel-saw, a hammer and nail-set, a bit- brace and three or four bits (twist-drills are good for the smaller sizes), a countersink, a few bradawls and gimlets, a screw-driver, a rasp and half-round file for wood, a three-cornered file for metal, an oil-stone, a glue-pot. An excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be bought almost anywhere under the name of "odd jobs." Of course you will need nails, screws, sandpaper, glue, oil, and such supplies, which you can buy as you need them. A section (18 inches or 20 inches high) from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block, or any big junk of timber can be used. You will, however, quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your work to better advantage, and according to the kind of work you are doing you will add some of the following: a fore-plane, a splitting-saw, a mallet, a back- saw, compasses, one or more firmer chisels, one or more framing-chisels, a block-plane, pincers, a gauge or two, one or more gouges, a steel square, a draw-knife, a large screw-driver, a scraper, a few hand-screws (or iron clamps), a few more bits, gimlets, bradawls, or drills, cutting-pliers or nippers, a bevel, a jointer (plane), a wrench. An iron mitre-box is useful but rather expensive, and you can get along with the wooden one described further on. A grindstone is, of course, essential when you get to the point of sharpening your tools yourself, but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a stone without having to buy one for a long time. The following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and sometimes all the work the average amateur is likely to do, excepting the bench appliances and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file, etc., of some other size or shape when needed. This is not a list to start with, of course, unless you can afford it, for you can get along for a good while with only a part, nor is it a complete list, but merely one with which a great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage. You can always add to it for special purposes. For further remarks about these tools and others and their uses, see Part V., where they will be found alphabetically arranged. 1 two-foot rule. 1 compass and keyhole saw (combined). 1 try-square (metal-bound). 1 bit-brace. 1 pair of wing compasses. 3 auger-bits (½", ¾", 1"). 1 marking-gauge. 3 twist-drills ( / ", / ", ¼"). 1 mortise-gauge. A few bradawls and gimlets. 1 steel square (carpenter's framing-square). 1 screw-driver for bit-brace. 1 bevel. 1 countersink. 1 "odd jobs." 1 hammer and 2 nail-sets. 1 chalk-line and chalk. 2 screw-drivers (different sizes). 1 knife. Files of several kinds (flat, 5 firmer chisels ( / ", ¼", ½", / ", 1¼"). three-cornered, and round 2 framing- or mortising-chisels (1", 1½"). for metal, and half-round 3 gouges (¼", ½", 1"). and round for wood). 1 iron spoke-shave (adjustable). 1 large half-round rasp. 1 draw-knife. 1 cabinet scraper and burnisher. [18] [19] [20] 1 8 3 16 1 8 7 8 1 hatchet. 1 mallet. 1 block-plane. 1 pair cutting-pliers. 1 smoothing-plane. 1 pair of pincers. 1 long fore-plane (or a jointer). 1 wrench. 1 jack-plane. 1 oil-stone and oiler. 1 rabbet-plane (¾" or / " square). 2 or 3 oil-stone slips (different 1 cutting-off saw (panel-saw, 24"). shapes). 1 splitting-saw (26"). 1 glue-pot. 1 back-saw (12"). 2 or more iron clamps. 1 turning-saw (14"). 2 or more wooden hand-screws. 2 or more cabinet clamps (2' to 4'). AN ADJUSTABLE IRON MITRE-BOX WILL BE A VALUABLE ADDITION TO THIS LIST, AND A GRINDSTONE IS OF USE EVEN WHEN YOU GET MOST of your grinding done. A FEW CARVER'S TOOLS ARE ALSO CONVENIENT AT TIMES IF YOU CAN AFFORD THEM, AS A SKEW-CHISEL (½"), A PARTING-TOOL (¼"), and a small veining-tool. General supplies, such as nails, screws, glue, etc., specified in Part V., will of course be required. There are still more tools than those given above, as you doubtless know, but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you will know what you need. Ploughs, matching-planes, and all such implements are omitted, because it is better and usually as cheap to get such work as they do done by machine at a mill. I also assume that all your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill. It is not worth while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large pieces, the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of wood-work, for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight expense, and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a trifle more than the cost of the wood alone.[6] Be sure to get good tools. There is a saying that a good workman is known by his tools, and another that a poor workman is always complaining of his tools, that is, excusing his own incompetence by throwing the blame upon his tools. There is also another saying to the effect that a good workman can work with poor tools; but it is simply because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if necessary often do good work in spite of inferior tools, and of course he could do the same work more easily and quickly, if not better, with good ones. So do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way, for a beginner should use only good tools and in good condition or he may never become a good workman at all, so make your tools and their care a matter of pride. If your tools are of good quality, and proper care is taken of them, they will last a lifetime and longer; so good tools prove the cheapest in the end.[7] There are some cases, however, in which it is as well not to buy the most expensive tools at first, as a cheap rule will do as well as an expensive one, considering how likely you are to break or lose it, and a cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while; but this does not affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the best tools. There are also quite a number of tools, appliances, and makeshifts which you can make for yourselves, some of which will be described. I advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops, auctions, or junk shops, except with the assistance of some competent workman. Care of Tools.—Keep your tools in good order. You cannot do nice, fine, clean work with a dull tool. A sharp tool will make a clean cut, but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut surface. You can work so much more easily and quickly as well as satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones, not to speak of the waste of strength and temper. I assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves until you have had considerable experience in using them; for sharpening tools (particularly saws and planes) is very hard for boys and amateurs, and not easy to learn from a book. So, until then, be sure to have them sharpened whenever they become dull. The expense is but slight, and it is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money for more tools and have them dull. When you get to the point of sharpening your tools, one lesson from a practical workman or even a little time spent in watching the operations (which you can do easily) will help you more than reading many pages from any book. So I advise you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman,—not at first, but after you have got quite handy with the tools. You can easily do this at little or no expense. For further points, see Sharpening, in Part V. It is a good plan to soak tool handles, mallets, and wooden planes, when new, for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft rag every day or two for a while. If you use wooden planes give them a good soaking. They will absorb much oil and work more freely and smoothly. You can save tool handles from being split by pounding, by sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe-makers. If there is any tendency to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be greased with a little fat,— 7 8 [21] [22] [23] Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. tallow, lard, wax, vaseline,—or some anti-rust preparation. Use of Tools.—It is very important to get started right in using tools. If your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards, but if you start with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn, which is always hard, and start afresh. If you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn much, and if you know a good-natured carpenter or cabinet-maker or any wood-worker of the old-fashioned kind, cultivate his acquaintance. If he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools. In fact, so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the average apprentice gets. He learns by observing and by practice. Do not be afraid or ashamed to ask questions. Very few men will refuse to answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent. There will be problems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have after you have learned what you can from others. But the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away and the tendency nowadays is for each workman, instead of spending years in learning the various branches and details of his trade, to be expert in only one very limited branch—or, as sometimes happens, a general botch in all the branches; so unless you find a real mechanic for a friend (such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter, or cabinet-maker, or wheelwright, or boat-builder, or carver), be a little guarded about believing all he tells or shows you; and beware of relying implicitly on the teachings of the man who "knows it all" and whom a season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a full-fledged "carpenter." If you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find it a decided advantage, as in getting out crooked work, or particularly in carving, where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in almost every possible direction, but "that is another story." A bad habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily, instead of laying it down where you are working. Edge-tools are dangerous things to carry around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid. For directions for using the different tools see Part V. Edge-Tools.—Bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on the principle of the wedge. So far as the mere cutting is concerned a keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool might be as thin as a sheet of paper. But of course such a tool would break, so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible. You know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade, but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain of being pushed through. Soft wood cuts more easily than hard, because it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge- shaped tool, and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool through it. You will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the cutting edge the more easily it will do its work, provided always that the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the end of the tool; and also that as the end of the tool encounters more resistance in hard than soft wood, the angle should be more obtuse or blunter for the former than for the latter. Theoretically, therefore, the angle of the cutting edge, to obtain the greatest possible advantage, would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every kind of cut, but practically all that can be done is to have a longer bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard. Experience and observation will teach these angles. See Sharpening in Part V. When you cut off a stout stick, as the branch of a tree, you do not try to force your knife straight across with one cut. You cut a small notch and then widen and deepen it by cutting first on one side and then on the other (Fig. 5). The wood yields easily to the wedge on the side towards the notch, so that the edge can easily cut deeper, and thus the notch is gradually cut through the stick. The same principle is seen in cutting down a tree with an axe. You have only to look at the structure of a piece of wood when magnified, as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, to see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it. You can often cut better with a draw-stroke, i.e., not merely pushing the tool straight ahead, but drawing it across sideways at the same time (Fig. 7). You can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor against your hand without cutting, but draw the edge across and you will be cut at once. Even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge quickly through your hand, as you doubtless know. If you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood, as you push a knife down through a lump of butter, or as in chopping with a hatchet, that is, without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth, it will not enter the wood to any extent, but when you begin to work it back and forth it cuts (or tears) its way into the wood at once. You know how much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the loaf. You may have noticed (and you may not) how much better your knife will cut, and that the cut will be cleaner, in doing some kinds of whittling, when you draw it through the wood from handle to point (Fig. 7), instead of pushing it straight through in the common way, and you will discover, if you try cutting various substances, that as a general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the draw-stroke. Now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope, and you will see that the edge, instead of being so very smooth, is really quite ragged,—a sort of saw-like edge. Then look at the structure of a piece of wood as [24] [25] [26] [27] B Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. roughly indicated in Fig. 6, and you will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an edge-tool. You see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed, and you also see the microscopically fine saw to cut them. Now if the edge of the tool is fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool straight through the wood, but do you not see that if you can draw or slide the tool either back or forth the edge, being saw-like, will do its work better? This stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or hatchet, splitting kindling-wood, or splitting a stick with the grain with a knife or chisel. In these operations the main principle is that of the wedge, pure and simple, driven through by force, the keen edge merely starting the cut, after which the wedge does the rest of the work by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it forces it to split in advance of the cutting edge, as in riving a log by the use first of an axe, then of an iron wedge, and finally a large wooden wedge (Fig. 8). Fig. 8. Practical directions and suggestions about the different Tools and their Uses and the various Operations will be found alphabetically arranged in Part V. CHAPTER III WOOD efore you can make anything successfully, you must have not merely wood, but the right kind of wood for the purpose. There are, also, "choice cuts" in lumber, as the butcher says of meat, and judicious selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job and a poor one; so let us examine a log and follow it through the sawmill. You have, of course, seen the rings, or circular lines, on the ends of pieces of wood (Fig. 9). These are called the annual rings,[8] and each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree, for, as perhaps you may have learned, the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding new layers of wood on the outside. Examine the ends of pieces of wood of various kinds. In some pieces these rings will be very plain. In others they will be quite indistinct. Notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the sapwood, usually looks different from the inner wood, which is called the heart (Fig. 9). In some trees you will see rays, or lines, radiating from the centre, and known as the medullary rays (Figs. 9 and 10), because they spring from the pith (Latin medulla). Sometimes these lines are too fine to be noticed. You will see from Fig. 10 that the layers of wood are also shown in the lines of what we call the "grain" on the surface of a piece of wood cut l...