Table of Contents, Glossary, Introduction : Women of theWorld Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives Latin America and the Caribbean The Center for Reproductive Law and Policy DEMUS, Estudio para la Defensa de los Derechos de la Mujer In collaboration with partners in Argentina Bolivia Brazil Colombia El Salvador Guatemala Jamaica México Perú PAGE 2 WOMEN OF THE WORLD: WOMEN OF THE WORLD: LAWS AND POLICIES AFFECTING THEIR REPRODUCTIVE LIVES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Published by the Center for Reproductive Law and Policy 120 Wall Street New York, NY10005 USA First edition, November 1997 Entire content copyright ©1997,The Center for Reproductive Law and Policy and DEMUS. All rights reserved. Reproduc- tion or transmission in any form, by any means, (electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), in whole or part, without the prior consent of the Center for Reproductive Law and Policy or DEMUS is expressly prohibited.This prohibition does not apply to the organizations listed in the Acknowledg- ments, for each of their corresponding country chapters. ISBN 1-890671-00-2 ISBN 1-890671-03-7 LAWS AND POLICIES AFFECTING THEIR REPRODUCTIVE LIVES PAGE 3 Jorge Chocos and Paula Masías, members of the DEMUS Acknowledgments team, were invaluable contributors in the various stages of This report was coordinated jointly by Gaby Oré Aguilar, coordination and production of this report. Pedro Morales and International Program Staff Attorney for Latin America and Julieta Herrera collaborated in the drafting of the Mexico the Caribbean of the Center for Reproductive Law and Policy, chapter. Juanita León commented on the report. and Roxana Vásquez Sótelo, General Coordinator of DEMUS CRLP and DEMUS would like to thank the following and Regional Coordinator for this report. organizations for their generous financial support towards the Research and preliminary drafting of the corresponding completion of this report: the Gender, Population and Devel- country chapters were undertaken by the following lawyers and opment Branch of the Technical and Evaluation Division of organizations: Mariana García Jurado, Instituto Género Dere- the United Nations Population Fund; The William and Flora cho y Desarollo (Argentina); Julieta Montaño, Director, Ofic- Hewlett Foundation; the Compton Foundation; and the Erik ina Jurídica de la Mujer (Bolivia); Silvia Pimentel and Valéria E. and Edith Bergstrom Foundation. Pandjirjian, Director and President, respectively, of the Board of Design and Production ©Emerson, Wajdowicz Studios, Trustees, Instituto para la Promoción de la Equidad (Brazil); New York, N.Y. Isabel Agatón, member, Casa de la Mujer (Colombia); Alba MESA Computer Sytems, New York, N.Y. América Guirola, Director, Instituto de Estudios para la Mujer Photography: ©TAFOS, Social Photography Workshop, “Norma Virginia Guirola de Herrera,” CEMUJER (El Sal- Lima, Peru vador); María Eugenia Mijangos, Regional Women’s Rights Coordinator, Centro para la Acción Legal en Derechos Humanos, CALDH (Guatemala); Margarette May Macaulay, Coordinator,Association of Women’s Organizations in Jamaica, AWOJA (Jamaica); Adriana Ortega Ortíz, Consultant, Grupo de Información en Reproducción Elegida GIRE (Mexico); and Kitty Trinidad, who drafted the Peru report for DEMUS, Estudio para la Defensa de los Derechos de la Mujer (Peru). The final report was edited by Gaby Oré Aguilar for CRLP, in collaboration with Carmen Reinoso and Luisa Cabal. Lau- ren Gilbert, Professor of Law and Director of the Women and International Law Program at Washington College of Law at American University, was the peer reviewer for the report. Katherine Hall Martinez, Staff Attorney at CRLP, edited the English translation from the original Spanish. Cynthia Eyakuze, Program Associate of the International Program at CRLP, provided invaluable assistance in coordinating the edit- ing of the English version of this report. The following people at CRLP also contributed to the var- ious steps in the coordination and production of this report: Anika Rahman partially edited the English versions of the chapters on Colombia, Jamaica, and Peru; Katherine Hall Martinez coordinated and edited the Jamaica chapter; Jeremy Telman, legal intern, edited the Jamaica chapter; Julieta Lemaitre partially drafted the El Salvador chapter and provided essential assistance in editing the translation of the various chapters from the original Spanish. Others who also provided invaluable assistance in the completion of this report were Janet Benshoof, Barbara Becker, Bonnie Kimmel, Alison- Maria Bartolone, and Katherine Tell. PAGE 4 WOMEN OF THE WORLD: III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive Table of Contents Rights: Women’s Legal Status 42 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 43 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 B. Economic and Social Rights 44 C. Right to Physical Integrity 45 GLOSSARY 7 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: FOREWORD 7 Adolescents 45 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 45 1. INTRODUCTION 9 B. Marriage and Adolescents 45 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 46 2. ARGENTINA 15 D. Sexual Education 47 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 17 4. BRAZIL 51 A. The Structure of National Government 17 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 18 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 53 C. Sources of Law 19 A. The Structure of National Government 53 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 19 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 54 A. Health Laws and Policies 19 C. Sources of Law 55 B. Population, Reproductive Health and Family Planning 19 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 55 A. Health Laws and Policies 55 C. Contraception 23 B. Population, Reproductive Health and D. Abortion 24 Family Planning 57 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexualy Transmisible C. Contraception 57 Infections (STIs) 24 D. Abortion 58 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible Rights: Women’s Legal Status 25 Infections (STIs) 59 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 26 B. Economic and Social Rights 26 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive Rights: Women’s Legal Status 60 C. Right to Physical Integrity 26 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 60 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: B. Economic and Social Rights 61 Adolescents 28 C. Right to Physical Integrity 63 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 28 B. Marriage and Adolescents 29 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: Adolescents 63 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 29 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 64 D. Sexual Education 29 B. Marriage and Adolescents 64 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 64 3. BOLIVIA 34 D. Sexual Education 64 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 36 5. COLOMBIA 69 A. The Structure of National Government 36 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 37 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 71 C. Sources of Law 37 A. The Structure of National Government 71 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 38 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 72 A. Health Laws and Policies 38 C. Sources of Law 73 B. Population, Reproductive Health and Family Planning 39 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 73 A. Health Laws and Policies 73 C. Contraception 40 B. Population, Reproductive Health and D. Abortion 41 Family Planning 75 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexualy Transmisible C. Contraception 76 Infections (STIs) 41 LAWS AND POLICIES AFFECTING THEIR REPRODUCTIVE LIVES PAGE 5 D. Abortion 77 B. Population, Reproductive Health and Family Planning 114 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible Infections (STIs) 77 C. Contraception 14 D. Abortion 15 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible Rights: Women’s Legal Status 79 Infections (STIs) 116 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 79 B. Economic and Social Rights 80 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive C. Right to Physical Integrity 82 Rights: Women’s Legal Status 116 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 117 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: B. Economic and Social Rights 118 Adolescents 83 C. Right to Physical Integrity 119 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 83 B. Marriage and Adolescents 83 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: C. Sexual Ofenses Against Adolescents and Minors 83 Adolescents 120 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 120 D. Sexual Education 84 B. Marriage and Adolescents 120 6. EL SALVADOR 91 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 120 D. Sexual Education 120 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 93 8. JAMAICA 126 A. The Structure of National Government 93 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 94 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and C. Sources of Law 94 Political Framework 128 A. The Structure of National Government 128 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 95 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 129 A. Health Laws and Policies 95 C. Sources of Law 130 B. Population, Reproductive Health and Family Planning 96 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 131 C. Contraception 97 A. Health Laws and Policies 131 D. Abortion 98 B. Population, Reproductive Health and Family Planning 132 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible Infections (STIs) 987 C. Contraception 13 D. Abortion 134 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible Rights: Women’s Legal Status 99 Infections (STIs) 135 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 99 B. Economic and Social Rights 99 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive C. Right to Physical Integrity 101 Rights: Women’s Legal Status 136 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 136 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: B. Economic and Social Rights 137 Adolescents 102 C. Right to Physical Integrity 138 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 102 B. Marriage and Adolescents 102 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: C. Sexual Ofenses Against Adolescents and Minors 103 Adolescents 139 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 139 D. Sexual Education 103 B. Marriage and Adolescents 101 7. GUATEMALA 108 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 102 D. Sexual Education 102 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 110 9. MEXICO 145 A. The Structure of National Government 110 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 111 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and C. Sources of Law 111 Political Framework 147 A. The Structure of National Government 147 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 112 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 148 A. Health Laws and Policies 112 C. Sources of Law 148 PAGE 6 WOMEN OF THE WORLD: II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 149 B. Sources of Law 188 A. Health Laws and Policies 149 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 189 B. Population, Reproductive Health and A. Health Laws and Policies 189 Family Planning 151 B. Population, Reproductive Health and C. Contraception 152 Family Planning 192 D. Abortion 152 C. Contraception 194 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible D. Abortion 195 Infections (STIs) 153 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive Infections (STIs) 196 Rights: Women’s Legal Status 153 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 154 Rights: Women’s Legal Status 197 B. Economic and Social Rights 154 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 198 C. Right to Physical Integrity 155 B. Economic and Social Rights 200 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: C. Right to Physical Integrity 202 Adolescents 157 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 157 Adolescents 204 B. Marriage and Adolescents 157 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 204 C. Sexual Offenses Agains Minors 157 B. Marriage and Adolescents 205 D Education and Adolescents 158 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 206 D. Sexual Education 206 10. PERU 163 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 165 A. The Structure of National Government 165 B. The Structure of Territorial Divisions 166 C. Sources of Law 166 II. Examining Health and Reproductive Rights 167 A. Health Laws and Policies 167 B. Population, Reproductive Health and Family Planning 169 C. Contraception 171 D. Abortion 172 E. HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmissible Infections (STIs) 173 III. Understanding the Exercise of Reproductive Rights: Women’s Legal Status 174 A. Civil Rights Within Marriage 174 B. Economic and Social Rights 175 C. Right to Physical Integrity 176 IV. Analyzing the Rights of a Special Group: Adolescents 17 A. Reproductive Health and Adolescents 177 B. Marriage and Adolescents 178 C. Sexual Offenses Against Adolescents and Minors 178 D. Sexual Education 179 11. CONCLUSION 186 I. Setting the Stage: The Legal and Political Framework 186 A. The Structure of National Government 187 LAWS AND POLICIES AFFECTING THEIR REPRODUCTIVE LIVES PAGE 7 Nonpenalized abortion: Glossary In this report, nonpenalized abortions are those exceptional cases of abortion that are not punishable by law, even where abortion is illegal. Frequently used abbreviations Rapto (abduction for sexual purposes): HIV: Rapto is the crime of taking a person away for romantic or sex- Human Immunodeficiency Virus ual purposes by means of fraud, violence, or threats. This AIDS: crime incurs a smaller penalty than kidnapping. In some Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome countries the crime is not punished if the victim consents to STI: marriage with the aggressor. Sexually transmissible infection Roman Law: NGO: This term refers to the legal system codified and applied dur- Nongovernmental organization ing the era of the Roman Empire. The diverse legal texts writ- ten during the Roman Empire are collectively called Corpus Frequently used terms Juris Civilis, and constitute a body of law that is distinct from Aborto culposo (unintentional abortion): English common law and canon law. Roman law constitutes Unintentional abortion is an abortion caused without the the framework for all of the civil legal systems. direct intention of doing so. An unintentional abortion is a Social Security: crime if the abortion was the foreseeable result of a person’s Many Latin American countries have a social security system actions. that includes insurance coverage for health services, disability Civil law: benefits, retirement benefits, and death benefits for contribut- Civil law, which derives from Roman law, describes a legal sys- ing employees or other eligible citizens and their families. tem in which statutes provide the principal source of rights Sociedad Conyugal (Community property): and obligations. Community property is a property regime that, unless other- Common law: wise agreed in writing by both partners, determines property Common law refers to a legal system deriving from early Eng- rights in marriage. Under this regime, all the property lish law based on principles, customary norms, or court deci- acquired by each spouse, as well as the interest and income sions. Today, it is the body of law that develops from judicial from inherited property or property acquired before marriage, decisions, as distinguished from laws brought forth through belongs to both in equal shares. This property is thus divided legislative enactments. equally upon legal separation, death, divorce or by contractual Estupro (Statutory rape): agreement between the spouses. The Spanish word estupro comes from the Latin stuprum, mean- Separación (separation): ing abominable behavior. It is a crime defined as having sexual Separation refers to the court-ordered dissolution of commu- relations with an underage girl with her consent. In some nity property; it is an intermediate stage between marriage and countries, there must also be an element of deceit for the sex- divorce in which the marriage is still valid, but conjugal rights ual relations to be criminal; in others, the girl must be a virgin and duties are suspended. In separation proceedings, the court or be known for “decent” sexual conduct. Anyone who has also assigns custody of the children, and establishes the child sexual relations with a prepubescent girl is guilty not of estupro support and alimony obligations to be paid. but of rape of a minor, which carries more severe penalties. Uniones de Hecho (Domestic partnerships): Imprudencia, impericia and negligencia (negligence): Domestic partnerships are stable unions between a man and a In civil law systems, there are three different kinds of negli- woman that resemble a marriage and that generate rights and gence: negligence proper, lack of skill (impericia), and reckless- obligations similar to those of marriage. The law in each coun- ness (imprudencia). In this report, all three terms are collectively try determines the necessary conditions to legally recognize referred to by the English term negligence. the union as valid. Domestic partnerships are roughly similar Jurisprudencia (jurisprudence): to the concept of common law marriage in common law legal Jurisprudencia is the accumulated body of court decisions on a systems. Generally, in common law such marriages are con- given issue. In civil law systems, prior court decisions generally tingent on an explicit mutual agreement between the couple, have no precedential value for courts. whereas uniones de hecho merely require that the couple cohab- itates in fact. PAGE 8 WOMEN OF THE WORLD: Foreword It is with great pleasure that I present Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives, Latin America and the Caribbean. This report is unique in many ways. It is the first publication on Latin America and the Caribbean that describes and analyzes the content of all formal laws and policies that affect women’s reproductive lives. The book presents a panoramic view of the region’s laws and policies so as to pro- vide some guidance regarding the arenas in which changes beneficial to women’s reproductive health can be wrought.The information contained in this report highlights regional trends while indicating the differences that exist among the nine nations discussed. Moreover, the report is the product of a suc- cessful collaboration between national-level women’s rights nongovernmental organizations located all over the Americas. Both the Center for Reproductive Law & Policy and our regional coordinator for Latin America, DEMUS, Estudio para la Defensa de los Derechos de la Mujer, worked closely and intensely for more than a year to produce this book. Finally, we seek to inform the world outside Latin America and the Caribbean of the legal and policy trends of this region. This report is thus being produced in Spanish and English. Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproduc- tive Lives, Latin America and the Caribbean is the second regional report in a global series being produced by the Center for Reproductive Law and Policy. Future reports will focus on East and Southeast Asia, Eastern and Central Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, South Asia and West and Central Africa. We are attempting to enhance knowledge of the vast range of formal laws and policies that govern the actions of billions of people, both women and men, around the world. While there are numerous problems associated with the content and selec- tive implementation of such laws and policies, there remains lit- tle doubt that laws and policies are powerful government tools. By making such information available to international, regional and national audiences, we hope to promote worldwide legal and policy advocacy to advance reproductive health and the sta- tus of all women. Ultimately, we seek a world in which women and men can be equal participants. Anika Rahman Director International Program The Center for Reproductive Law and Policy November 1997 LAWS AND POLICIES AFFECTING THEIR REPRODUCTIVE LIVES PAGE 9 Introduction Reproductive rights are internationally recognized as critical both for advancing women’s human rights and for promoting development. In recent years, governments from all over the world have acknowl- edged and pledged to advance reproductive rights to an unprecedented degree. Such governmental commitments — at major international conferences, such as the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995), the International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo, 1994), and the World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna,1993) — have set the stage for moving from rhetoric to reality in the arena of women’s rights. But for governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to work toward reforming laws and policies and implementing the mandates of these international con- ferences, they must be informed about the current state of laws and policies affecting reproductive rights at the national and regional levels. ithin the global human rights framework, reproductive unequal relations between men and women. The absence of rights encompass a broad range of internationally recog- laws or procedures to enforce existing laws may also have a Wnized political, economic, social, and cultural rights, at negative effect on the reproductive lives of women and men. both the individual and collective levels. Hence, understanding For example, the absence of laws regulating the relationship the laws and policies that affect the reproductive lives of between health providers and users of reproductive health ser- women requires knowledge of the legal and political situation vices may contribute to arbitrary decision making, which may of any given country, because this reality is a key factor affect- affect the rights and interests of both parties.At the same time, ing women’s reproductive choices and their legal, economic, the absence of antidiscrimination laws and of laws promoting and social situations. All these facts are crucial to the efforts of equality among diverse sectors of society undermines equal advocates seeking to promote national and regional legislative access to reproductive health services, affecting low-income reforms that would enhance protection of women’s rights and women in particular. their reproductive health. This knowledge may also assist in Reproductive health policies are of special importance the formulation of effective government policies by providing because they reflect a government’s political positions and per- information on the different aspects of women’s reproductive spectives on health and women’s rights. Some governments treat lives as well as on their needs and general concerns.The objec- women as central actors in the promotion of reproductive tive of this report is to ensure that women’s concerns are health. Others view women as a means by which to implement reflected in future legal and policy efforts. demographic goals set by different economic and cultural Laws are essential tools by which to promote women’s imperatives. Public policies can either facilitate global access to reproductive health, facilitate their access to health services, and reproductive well-being or exclude specific groups by estab- protect their human rights as users of such services. However, lishing economic barriers to health services. In the latter situa- laws can also restrict women’s access to the full enjoyment of tion, women who are the poorest, the least educated, and the reproductive health. For example, laws may limit an individ- least empowered are hurt the most. Furthermore, the absence ual’s choice of contraceptive methods, impose penalties on of reproductive health and family planning policies in some health providers who treat women suffering from abortion countries demonstrates the need for greater effort to assure that complications, and discriminate against specific groups, such as governments live up to the commitments they assumed at the adolescents, by denying them full access to reproductive health international conferences of Vienna, Cairo, and Beijing. services. Laws that discriminate against women or that subor- This report sets forth national laws and policies in key areas dinate them to their spouses in marriage or to their partners in of reproductive health and women’s empowerment in nine domestic partnerships (uniones de hecho), undermine the right to Latin American and Caribbean countries: Argentina, Bolivia, reproductive self-determination and serve to legitimize Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, PAGE 10 WOMEN OF THE WORLD: and Peru.This legal analysis examines constitutional provisions this system into South America during their colonial rule. In and laws and regulations enacted by each country’s legislative this system, legislation is the principal source of the rule of law. and executive branches. Moreover, this report discusses ethical It is also important to note that in Latin American countries codes approved by professional associations whenever the the customary norms and authorities of indigenous popula- country’s legal system recognizes them as being equivalent to tions exist alongside the formal legal systems. In several coun- law. The government programs and activities examined tries, the Constitution recognizes these customary laws and include those that directly or indirectly involve reproductive authorities. These laws primarily govern issues such as land- health. In addition, this report describes the entities charged holding in the indigenous communities, property inheritance, with implementing these policies and the mechanisms that and marital life.They also establish the usage and customs that enable people to participate in the monitoring of government determine the status of women in the community. reproductive programs and activities. This book also includes The legal system of Jamaica derives from common law, a description of the civil and socioeconomic rights of women which originated in England. This legal system’s series of prin- and the status of adolescents in each country. It concludes with ciples and rules derives solely from usage and long-held customs an analysis of the regional trends in population, reproductive based primarily on unwritten law and has often been adopted health, and family planning policies and a description of the by countries that were colonized by England.The primary dif- existing legal standards in reproductive rights. ference between the common law system and the Roman legal This introduction seeks to provide a general background to system is the role of courts. In common law regimes, judicial the Latin American and Caribbean region, the nations profiled decisions create binding legal norms. In the Roman legal sys- in this report, and the information presented on each country. tem, legislation is the principal source of law, and judicial deci- The following section provides an overview of the regional sions establish legal norms only in the rare cases where context of Latin America and the Caribbean and places a spe- legislative enactment or constitutional provisions so mandate. cial emphasis on the legal system and on the principal regional B. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH PROBLEMS: indicators of women’s status and reproductive health. This A COMMON AGENDA description provides an overall perspective on the Latin Amer- During the 1980s and the early 1990s, structural adjustment ican and Caribbean region in terms of the key issues covered policies throughout the region of Latin America and the in this report.A review of the characteristics shared by the nine Caribbean had a dramatic adverse impact on people’s, especially countries profiled herein follows. Finally, this chapter includes women’s, health and quality of life. As government expendi- a description of the content of each of the national-level pro- tures in health and other social policies were drastically reduced, files presented in this report. these adjustments caused economic recession and an increase in I.An Overview of the poverty throughout the region. Health system reforms in the region resulted in a sudden shift of the governmental role: the Latin American and government went from being a key provider of health services Caribbean Region to being a promoter of either private or public general health insurance.Adjustment programs forced governments to pursue Latin America and the Caribbean — comprising South Amer- strategies that would allow public health services to become ica, Central America, and the English, French and Spanish- self-financing by taking actions such as charging fees to service speaking Caribbean — represent just over 8% of the world’s users and transferring the responsibility for health provision to population. Of the 40 million indigenous people living in the private or mixed public and private health care systems. Recent region, 59% are women. Latin America and the Caribbean are evaluations of the implementation of such measures in the often considered a single region not only because of their geo- region have shown that they have had an adverse impact on the graphical proximity but also because the nations within this ability of low-income groups, especially rural and indigenous region have experienced similar historic, economic, and struc- people, to gain access to health care services. tural processes. Latin America and the Caribbean face similar reproductive A. A SHARED LEGAL TRADITION health problems. The United Nations Population Fund has Latin American legal systems generally derive from ancient established that the region requires US$1.79 billion to ensure Roman law, which some refer to as a civil legal system because universal access to reproductive health and population of the common reliance on the important compilation of programs by the year 2000. The average rate of maternal Roman laws, Corpus Juris Civilis. Spain and Portugal introduced mortality in the region is 194 for every 100,000 live births, the