Women-of-Faith Peacebuilders Elisabeth Porter Contents Acronyms Chapter 1 Introducing Women-of-faith Peacebuilders 2 Rationale 3 Key Concepts 7 Chapter Outline 9 Chapter 2 Religion and Global Trends 10 Religion and Conflict 10 Religion and Global Trends 12 Religion and Gender 17 Religion and Peace 23 Chapter 3 Women-of-faith as Transformative Agents 28 Narrative Understanding of Agency 28 Faith and Feminism 34 Feminist Theological Praxis 38 Chapter 4 Women-of-faith Participating in Peace Processes 48 Formal Peace Processes 48 Informal Peace Process 52 Playing the Mother Card 63 Chapter 5 Women-of-faith Building Coalitions 72 Pluralist Respect for Differences 72 Webs of Relationships 74 Copyright © 2018 Elisabeth Porter Coalitions Across Differences 77 All rights reserved. Opposing Violent Extremism and Fundamentalisms 89 Chapter 6 Women-of-faith Empowering Violated Victims 100 Gender-based Violence Against Women and Girls 101 Healing Victims and Survivors 110 Human Trafficking 112 Empowering Survivors 116 Chapter 7 Women-of-faith Practising Just Peace 122 Women Doing Peacebuilding Differently 122 Demonstrating Compassion 125 Reconciling Relationships 132 ISBN: 9781790147168 Practising Just Peace 136 Imprint: Independently published Conclusion 148 References 152 Preface All books have a story because they take a long time to write. This one began in 2016 when I was Professor of Politics and International Relations at the University of South Australia. My favourite teaching course was "Peace, Justice, and Reconciliation." Drafts of this book were written in academic mode for my research output. Then the university quite astonishingly withdrew the teaching in this field and I was made redundant. So, I decided to alter the style of the book a little to make it more readable. I also chose to publish it independently, so that it's more affordable. I benefited from a semester of time off teaching when I was granted a sabbatical. This was spent as a Visiting Research Professor at the Queens University Belfast, in the Senator George J Mitchell Institute for Global Peace, Security, and Justice. In Chapter 7, in my discussion on apology, I acknowledge that many of the conditions I write about were taken from a summary presented at a participatory workshop I attended, which was run by Kieran McEvoy and Anna Bryson, "Who, what, where, when, why: apology and dealing with the past in Ireland," on 7 November 2016, at the Queens University Belfast. Throughout this book, all italicized words in quotations are in italic in the original. I've also chosen to italicize words or phrases that I want to emphasize. In reference to the narratives discussed in Chapter 7, Jennifer Freeman, the Associate Director for PeaceMakers Projects, University of San Diego, granted permission to use quotations from these narratives, and this was granted by email on 1 7 November 2016. Writing this book has been a solitary process of research, thinking, and writing. It is not based on fieldwork, but on an intensive scrutiny of primary and secondary literature, always looking for first-person accounts of peacebuilding by women whose faith matters to them. I'd like to thank my wonderful husband Norman, who is always a loving, affectionate, and amazing support to my work. I am so grateful for the love and friendship we share. Feel free to contact me on lisporrer55(a),grn:til.t::()m Acronyms A21 Abolishing Injustice in the Twenty-First Century ARLPI Acholi Religious Leaders Peace Initiative AWID Association for Women's Rights in Development BiH Bosnia-Herzegovina BRA Bougainville Revolutionary Army CATW Coalition Against Trafficking in Women CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women CPWR Council for a Parliament of the World's Religions CRSV conflict-related sexual violence DDR disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration DRC Democratic Republic of Congo GBV gender-based violence GPPAC Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict IDP internally displaced persons IEP Institute for Economics and Peace ILO International Labour Organization IR international relations ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (o r Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) LRA Lord's Resistance Army LWI Liberian Women's Initiative MARWOPNET Mano River Women's Peace Network MENA Middle East and North Africa NAP national action plan NGO non-governmental organization nd no date np no page PNG Papua and New Guinea RUF Revolutionary United Front SAVE Sisters Against Violent Extremism SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SGBV sexual and gender-based violence UN United Nations UN Action UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict UNDP United Nations Development Program UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNIFEM UN Development Fund for Women UNODC UN Office on Drugs and Crime UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution UWOFNET Uganda Women of Faith Network WILPF Women's International League for Peace and Freedom WIPNET Women in Peacebuilding Network ~'PS women, peace, and security 1 women whose self defined faith is a prime motivatorf or their peacebuilding work. I acknowledge 1 Introducing Women-of-faith Peacebuilders that I have more personal knowledge of Christianity than of other faiths. It's also the case that there is more documentation of the work done by Christian women compared with that by women of other faiths. Nevertheless, I include a variety of Who are women-of-faith in the context of politics and peacebuilding? What do faiths and interfaith examples in my investigation whenever possible. Two further they do, and why do they do it? Why is a book on these women needed? In answer clarifications: First, my analysis revolves predominantly around the peacebuilding to that last question, I suggest that there are four main reasons. practices that occur in contexts of war, post-war, and transitional justice societies, First, because religion is playing an increasingly dominant role in global rather than in interfaith dialogue in multicultural Western nations. Second, the politics in ways that need to be understood, and because for many women and men, conceptual framework of the book is interdisciplinary in connecting peace and religious faith is an integral aspect of their identities, influencing their social and conflict studies, politics and international relations, the sociology of religions, and political involvement. Thus, understanding the connections among religion, transitional justice, all within a feminist interpretive context. This framework is identity, and global politics is important for comprehending contemporary clarified more fully in Chapter 3, but simply stated, I use a gender lens to highlight international relations and global politics. Further, articulating the role that women gendered inequalities and injustices that occur in everyday experiences and in global of-faith play in building peace highlights their distinctive contribution to the politics politics. This lens also helps to highlight the significant contribution to and practices of peacebuilding, a contribution that often is hidden from the peacebuilding that women and men make. limelight. Now, in the next section of this chapter, I expand on the four rationales Second, although United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) outlined above. 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security (UN Security Council 2000) is the advocacy tool utilized by UN staff, scholars, policy-makers, nongovernmental organizations Rationale (NGOs), aid and development workers, and peace practitioners for increasing women's active involvement in decision-making on all women, peace, and security (WPS) matters, there is little scholarly work that links this significant resolution and Religion in Global Politics its related sister resolutions to the role of religion and faith as it is practised in everyday life. So, I think that it's worth exploring how various countries draw on Throughout history, religious rhetoric has been used to justify so-called holy wars. religion and faith in developing their national action plans (NAPs) on the We're familiar with the negative aspects of religion - those seen in interstate wars implementation of this key resolution to see how women-of-faith can fruitfully be carried out in the name of defending religious beliefs, civil wars raging between incorporated into, and indeed lead, decisions that enhance WPS strategies. groups of differing faiths, and the use of religion to curtail women's rights. But Third, the literature on peace building stresses the importance of utilizing while at times religion is used to justify terrible acts of violence, at other times it local traditions and indigenous peacebuilders in transforming conflict, building provides a basis for peacebuilding. Religious differences can alienate diverse security, and sustaining peace. Yet, feminist scholars have, in the main, omitted groups; yet, where there is openness to difference, religious visions of a just peace paying attention to the way that women-of-faith leaders act as role models in local can unite people through their common aspirations. Oppressive religion destroys communities and thus have the potential to instigate social and cultural change in creative minds and stultifies human rights, while inspirational religious ideas build ways that further gender equality. What women-of-faith typically do is to work at people up and can prompt social justice activism. After the end of the Cold War, the informal, grassroots levels, work which usually isn't reflected in high-profile identity-based conflicts revealed ways in which religious identity can be used to reporting. For this reason, it is imperative to document what these women-of-faith legitimize violence; yet, as will be seen in the chapters that follow, there are many are doing, and to value the differences their activities are making in local religious leaders who advocate reconciliation through interfaith dialogue. communities. Within the discipline of international relations (IR), the rising prominence Fourth, the work of UNSCR 1325 generally is formulated in a liberal of religious actors in politics in developing and developed countries has raised a oriented and rights-based, secular framework that sits in tension with the more host of ethical questions about issues such as self-determination for specific groups, relational, communal focused peacebuilding of local women. This secular focus spurious justifications for violence committed in the name of religion, and the misses the important roles that women-of-faith play in transforming conflict, international responsibility to protect minority religious groups. In addition, the challenging religious extremism and the radicalization of youth, and contributing post-9 / 11 global context has elevated the profile of the impact of religion on war, in amazing ways to building peace with local knowledge. Thus, it's important to terrorism, and women's rights. Wherever there is an intertwining of religion and tease out the tensions between the communal orientation of local women-of-faith politics, there's a great deal at stake for women regarding equality, autonomy, and and the secular, individual-rights emphasis within the \x;'PS community. bodily integrity. There are countless instances of patriarchal traditions that are Before expanding on these four underlying rationales, a few clarifications justified by religious dogma that seriously limit women's involvement in public life, are in order. It is important to note that this book is not about religion, but about 2 3 leadership, and decision-making. At the same time, women's rights advocates who Specifically, it calls for increased participation of women in peace processes; promote universal human rights norms in the Global South often struggle with protection of women and girls and respect for their rights; prevention of gender-specific accusations of "cultural imperialism and Western-style individualism" (Razavi and violence; and incorporating a gender perspective in peacekeeping and training, Jenichen 2010: 845). relief and recovery work, peace agreements, and the implementation of all activities Yet, as I expand later, religion may offer emancipatory opportunities for relating to conflict, peace, and security. Subsequent resolutions call for the women to demonstrate leadership in education, health care, and providing support prosecution of violators. These resolutions bring much-needed attention to the effect for communities. These tensions between religion's enhancement or limitation of of violent conflict on women and girls and the crucial need for women to be women's agency are teased out in the following chapters. But while I do address meaningful actors in all decision-making processes related to peace and security. the ways that religion can be a driver of conflict and undermine women's potential, UNSCR 1325 does not mention religion specifically. It does, though, at my chief aim in this book is to highlight ways in which women from many faith note 8, call on all actors to "support local women's peace initiatives and indigenous backgrounds overcome massive religious, cultural, and traditional obstacles and can processes for conflict resolution." I am taking this note to be of great significance re!J on their faith to build peace, improve security, foster reconciliation, and practice a just peace. in highlighting local women's peacebuilding. And UNSCR 1888, at note 15: UNSCR 1325 and Religion Encourages leaders at the national and local level, including traditional leaders Fundamental to my analysis is the global "women, peace, and security" (WPS) where they exist and religious leaders, to play a more active role in agenda that has emerged in response to the persistence of the international sensitizing communities on sexual violence to avoid marginalization and community of equality, justice, and human rights activists. The Fourth World stigmatization of victims, to assist with their social reintegration, and to Conference on Women held in Beijing in 199 5 saw an unprecedented 17,000 combat a culture of impunity for these crimes. (UN Security Council 2009a) formal participants and 30,000 activists come together to further gender equality and the empowerment of women. This led to the Beijing Declaration and Platform As is noted in Chapter 6 in a discussion of National Action Plans (NAPs) for the for Action, which articulates twelve areas of critical concern regarding gender implementation of UNSCR 1325, the involvement of religious leaders in increasing equality. These areas of concern are: the environment; power and decision-making; women's security is crucial, certainly in sensitizing community attitudes toward the children; the economy; poverty; violence against women; human rights; harm caused by violence against women, but also in terms of changing social institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women; health; the media; and structures and cultural attitudes in ways that would increase women's participation armed conflict. The Platform gave worldwide visibility to the need to redress as active agents in decision-making. gender inequality in a systematic fashion, and it unleashed the political will to do UNSCR 2242, in its preamble: so, reinforcing the activism of the women's movement (Gardam and Jarvis 2000). Yet, especially regarding the impact of war and armed conflict on women's security, U,;ges Member States and the United Nations system to ensure the much more needs to be done. participation and leadership of women and women's organizations in The lobbying of leading women's activist groups within the NGO developing strategies to counter terrorism and violent extremism which can Working Group on Women, Peace, and Security, a consensus-based coalition of be conducive to terrorism, including through countering incitement to 14 significant international NGOs, reinforced the pressing need to attend to war's commit terrorist acts, creating counter narratives and other appropriate impact on women and girls, culminating in the historic United Nations Security interventions, and building their capacity to do so effectively, and further to Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security (Security Council 2000), address, including by the empowerment of women, youth, religious and and subsequently followed by sister resolutions 1820 (UN Security Council 2008), cultural leaders, the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism and 1888 (UN Security Council 2009a), 1889 (UN Security Council 20096), 1960 (UN violent extremism which can be conducive to terrorism. (UN Security Security Council 2010), 2106 (UN Security Council 2013a), 2122 (UN Security Council 2015) Council 20136), and 2242 (UN Security Council 2015). UNSCR 1325, the first UN Security Council resolution to specifically address the impact of armed conflict on The scholarship that has emerged around the WPS agenda provides a concrete women and girls, reaffirms "the important role of women in the prevention and body of knowledge within which to situate my exploration of how women practice resolution of conflicts and in peacebuilding," and stresses "the importance of their a just peace in contexts where religious differences contribute to conflict, where equal participation and full involvement" in maintaining and promoting peace and the harm of religious extremism seems overwhelming, and where religion stifles security and increasing women's role in decision-making processes to prevent and women's ability to make decisions (see Cohn, Kinsella and Gibbings 2004; resolve conflict and further peace and security. Heathcote and Otto 2014; Kirby and Shepherd 2016; Puechguirbal 2010; Tryggestad 2009; Willett 2010). 4 5 My central argument is that many women-of-faith peacebuilders, particularly those who identify with feminist values, are doing much of the work Relationship of Feminism, Religion, and Secularism called for by UNSCR 1325 and related resolutions, despite not always being aware of the resolutions. The principles of UNSCR 1325 are now integrated into official A purely secular focus on women, peace, and security concerns misses the peace and security projects as standard practice (de Jong Outdraat, Stojanovic importance of religion's potential in overcoming conflict, as well as the capacity of Gajic, Washington, and Stedman 2015). Yet, many women contribute significantly many women-of-faith to bypass religion's restrictive dictates to transform conflict to peacebuilding practices in unofficial ways that don't gain adequate recognition. in their unique ways. Ann Tickner writes that despite the discipline of IR showing As will be demonstrated, th~y build peace in unique ways. a strong resurgence of interest in religion since 9 / 11, "new work on religion in IR has largely ignored gender. But it is also the case that IR feminists have largely Peacebuilding and I ,ocal Traditions ignored religion" (2014: 128). Indeed, some feminist discourse, noting institutional patriarchy within most religions, regards religion with contempt, as an obstruction Given the stress in peacebuilding literature and practice on the importance of the to women's equality. These views must be considered, yet I suggest that there is a local for myriad reasons - for example, because local people understand local needs, real case for making connections between, on the one hand, the secular scholarly to avoid paternalism and neo-colonialism, and because building local capacity and practical world of IR, transitional justice, and WPS advocates and, on the other strengthens the chance for sustainable peace (Richmond 2009) - I seek to show hand, the peacebuilding work that is being done by women-of-faith in conflict that it's important to utilize all indigenous traditions that are working toward a just zones and post-war settings. In doing so, links between building peace, affirming peace, including those motivated by faith. The twenty-year anniversary of the gender equality, valuing religious diversity, and creating inter-faith dialogue are Beijing Platform for Action and the fifteenth-year anniversary of UNSCR 1325 in highlighted. 2015 saw a renewed emphasis on what it means to localize the priorities of gender Pramada Menon acknowledges: "I think for a very long time, those of us equality, empowerment, and women's security in promoting the voices of civil who work within women's human rights have not really worked on issues of society. Hence examples given in the book deliberately highlight local, grassroots religion. I suspect that this has to do with our desire to appear secular" (in Balchin work. 2011: 72). Rama Mani also "argues for a fundamental shift in both perspective and While the role of women in peace building, long neglected in the literature, language that includes an appreciation of spirituality in the work of women and is starting to be recognized (for example, Anderlini 2007; Olonisakin, Barnes, and men who operate, in varying ways, outside the conventional bounds of academia Ikp 2011; Porter 2007), when the topic is women and religion, this remains "largely and international policies" (in Hayward and Marshall 2015: 325). The secular unexplored terrain" (Marshall and Hayward 2010: 3). Certainly, there is scholarship language of international politics obscures the fact that, in the places where most on the ways that religious dynamics hamper women's public roles (Carlson 2011; violent conflict occurs, nearly everyone looks to spiritual resources for inner Greiff 2010; Razavi and Jenichen 2010; Verveer 2016); but there is little on the ways sustenance. Hayward writes that secular organizations like the Institute for that it may be "facilitating women's full participation in peacebuilding (particularly Inclusive Security are seeking to get more women involved in international affairs, religious dynamics propelling women into peacework)" (Hayward 2015: 308). "but the analytical and visible field of religious peacemaking is behind the curve .... Additionally, scant consideration is given to the connections among gender, It's not a matter of women not being involved in religious peacemaking - it's more women, religion, and peacebuilding. Katherine Marshall and Susan Hayward a matter of their efforts not being seen, supported, or analyzed" (in Marshall and explain that the lack of attention to these connections matters, because it "has led Hayward 2010: 5). The work carried about by women-of-faith is often not only to failures to understand fully the nature of conflict, but has hidden from unrecognized, but on the frontlines of conflict, women are providing care by view potential avenues for resolving conflicts, promoting post-conflict healing and "working to heal war-torn communities, addressing HIV/ AIDS treatment and reconciliation, and building sustainable peace" (2010: 4). It is precisely the prevention, fighting poverty, defending human rights, and struggling to establish a highlighting of this potential that is my central aim. Thus, it's important to more just and harmonious society" (Religions for Peace 2009: 5). document what women-of-faith are doing in local communities to build peace, explain why they are doing this work, and highlight what unique contributions they Key Concepts make. By providing examples of women telling their stories to explain how their personal faith acts as a motivation in their public work as community peacebuilders, my research demonstrates their relational, communal contributions to buildingjust peace. Three recurring concepts are utilized throughout this book: women-of-faith, post This research is not gained from primary fieldwork data. Rather, I sought examples conflict, and peacebuilding. I explain these now. As intimated, "Women-of-faith that are drawn from a broad range of geographic areas and faiths to show how have historically 'fallen through the cracks' of the scholarship and practice of women-of-faith build peace. My priority lay in sourcing first-person narratives of religious peacebuilding and women's peacebuilding, marginalized from both fields" women's account of how faith spurs their peacebuilding. (Hayward 2015: 308). Hayward defines what she calls "women-of-faith 6 7 peacebuilders" to be "women who have important and formative links to the "peacebuilding can be defined quite broadly as everything implied by a robust, religion as a source of inspiration and formation or, more practically, who use positive understanding of a just peace" (2010: 323). From another perspective, religious resources as a central component of their peace work, to be religious Carolina, a combatant in the guerrilla movement in El Salvador, explains after being women peacebuilders" (2015: 308-309). Hayward also includes in this category demobilized in July 1992: "Building it, making it, and not allowing it to collapse is women who work through faith-based organizations, social services, or scholarship very difficult to do. Peace is like something made of glass: if you drop it, it breaks" to advance justice and peace, as well as women in secular arenas who cite their link (in Bennett et al. 199 5: 196-197). Making sure that fragile peace doesn't collapse is to faith as a force that inspires and shapes their work. Fuller explanations of what a long-term, ongoing process. it means to be a woman-of-faith appear in Chapter 3. Suffice to note here that my methodology is to include examples from any woman building peace who claims Chapter Outline the importance of faith to her work. The term "post-conflict," used frequently within UN documents and in the IR, transitional justice, and peacebuilding literatures, is in my view, problematic. In the next chapter, I discuss the global trends that are affecting the impact of It is an ambiguous term "in obscuring the insecurities people experience after the religion on international politics. I also look specifically at the relationship between cessation of war, ignoring the gender-specific ways that women and men religion and gender to show how religious texts are often used to justify patriarchal experience insecurity and security; and it understates the degree to which gendered constraints on women's equality, freedom, rights, and opportunities to demonstrate violence remains in a militarized or previously violent culture" (Porter 2016: 210). leadership - and to show how some women are consciously reinterpreting these Often, the presence of international peacekeepers mixing with local security forces texts within their own traditions in ways that could be liberating. heighten feelings of militarized security (Simic 2012). Yet, the period immediately Chapter 3 presents evidence of women-of-faith as agents of after war has ended, when a state is in transition from violence to enhancing transformative change, especially concerning issues of social justice. In Chapter 4, security and sound governance, represents a moment of great potential to work the discussion turns to how women-of-faith are represented in both formal and toward gender equality and justice. With these qualifications in mind, because the informal peace processes. Chapter 5 explores the challenges, priorities, and term "post-conflict" is in common usage, I continue to use it (although sparingly). achievements of women-of-faith who work across religious and faith differences However, I prefer to use the term "post-war" to indicate that, for many people, to build peace. In Chapter 6, I look at how women-of-faith deal practically with some conflict remains, and the effects of war lingers. victims of sexual violence to try to heal physical and psychological wounds. The "Peacebuilding" also has specific meanings in the literature and in UN focus of Chapter 7 is the unique contributions that women-of-faith make in their usage. Previous United Nations Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali practices of just peace - that is, how they "do peacebuilding" differently. And in explained that "post-conflict peacebuilding" refers to the rebuilding of the Conclusion, I summarize what the WPS community can learn from women-of infrastructures, institutions, and relationships, with an emphasis on preventing faith peacebuilders, highlighting the specific contribution women-of-faith make to recurring conflict (1992: 5). In the IR literature, peace building is seen to start "when buildingjust peace and arguing that a more deliberate inclusion of women-of-faith is the fighting has stopped. It is, by definition, a post-conflict enterprise" (Paris 2004: needed. 39). While not disregarding these understandings, I argue that they miss a lot of everyday activities that occur as part of unofficial peacebuilding. In the context of peace and security, the everyday is "a culturally appropriate form of individual or community life and care" (Richmond 2009: 558). Thus, I believe that expansive views of peacebuilding are "more likely to recognize women's informal activities as peacebuilders" (Porter and Mundkur 2012: 29). John Paul Lederach also calls for peacebuilding to be considered "more than post-accord reconstruction," and to be understood in a thorough way that "sustains the full array of processes, approaches, and stages needed to transform conflict toward more sustainable, peaceful relationships" (2004: 20). In this book, I utilize a very broad definition of peace building, developed in my earlier works: "I argue that peacebuilding involves all processes that build positive relationships, heal wounds, reconcile antagonistic differences, restore esteem, respect rights, meet basic needs, enhance equality, instil feelings of security, empower moral agency, and are democratic, inclusive, and just" (Porter, 2007: 34; Porter 2015: 8). This definition is deliberately extensive. As Gerard Powers puts it, 8 9 2 Religion and Global Trends 2015: 21-22). The reasons for these contradictions are numerous. Most sacred texts have contrasting messages that exhort believers to fight evil, yet also push "a pacifist motive that prohibits harming others and prescribes a love for enemies that seems to challenge the very foundations of the warrior motif' (Kurtz 2012: 284). Global trends on religion influence the relationship between conflict, gender, and In the post-Cold war era, the identity politics attached to ethnicity, peacebuilding. I highlight four main ways this occurs. First, while religious beliefs nationalism, and religion drove some conflicts. This is because many people generally espouse peaceful values, throughout history, there are many examples identified strongly with political projects that were intermeshed with subjective where religion and conflict coincide, particularly where religion overlaps with dimensions, of being for example, a Serbian Orthodox or a Bosnian Muslim. ethnicity and national identity. History shows that violent abuses and suppression Herein again, paradoxes arise. Some people seek security in ethnic and religious of women's rights often are justified in the name of religion. identity that aligns with national identity, such as Protestants in Northern Ireland Second, the influence of religion on global politics is growing, along with identifying as British, or Catholics as Irish. Others share a religious affinity that a high proportion of believers in the major world religions. I suggest that it's extends beyond nationality (Katano 2008: 351), such as being born into the Roman important to note this trend, because religious beliefs tend to be strong in most Catholic community. Ethno-religious identity features strongly in conflicts where countries where civil war rages. This is why I stress that peacebuilding that relates kinship, religion, economic systems, and language are linked. In Nigeria for to local customs, including faith traditions, is crucial in order to foster culturally example, there about 520 languages marking each different group. Where ethno appropriate changes to values and practices that are required to improve gender religious identity is a crucial marker, religious traditions may perpetuate negative equality. enemy images of the other. This is of great concern because these conflicts occur The third global tendency I discuss is how religion often undermines in communities where people are living in close proximity, and where combined women's security through its patriarchal assumptions and practices. This occurs histories are filled with hostilities, mistrust, and resentment toward the other side. through using religious texts to justify men's authority and constrain women's The risk of serious conflict is highest in places "where deep religious equality, freedom, rights, and leadership, making the contribution of women-of divisions coincide with strong political and social divisions" (Garrod and Jones faith peacebuilders a truly significant feat. 2009: 82). Examples of ethnic, tribal, or race divisions include warfare between Fourth, I argue that despite the frequent negativity of religion in seeming Muslims in the Republic of Sudan and Christians in South Sudan, religious to cause conflict, or to justify violence and repress women's rights, all religions have differences between Catholics, Orthodox, and Muslims in the former Yugoslavian a vision of peace and the capacity to empower women, and it's this vision and nations, and hostility between Hindus and Muslims in India. Although the capacity that I choose to highlight. Myanmar government regards the Rohingyan community as ethnic outsiders, much My central argument in this chapter is that despite religion's terrible of "the violence carried out against them has been led by nationalist Buddhist record in aligning with violence in certain conflicts, and using scriptures to monks" against the religious affiliation of Rohingya as Muslims, complicating rationalize restrictive views toward women, it is reasonable to talk of faith's "Orientalist stereotypes of Buddhism as a religion of peace" (Shani and Saeed 2016: capability to foster just peace. There is significant evidence to show that the 65-66). Given the strength of religious divisions, transforming these violent objectives and practices of local women's faith-based peacebuilding has great conflicts requires "tapping into religious, cultural, and national symbols, values, potential to transform conflict in local communities and build women's esteem. myths, and images that promote reconciliation, coexistence, and peace" (Kadayifci Orellana 2013: 151). Locating values of reconciliation like accountability and Religion and Conflict forgiveness within the boundaries of sacred texts can provide acceptability of new behaviours. However, before reconciliation is possible, the tight intransigence of identity politics must be loosened, so that people can be open to an acceptance of This first section acknowledges the long historical association of religion with others with different ethnicity, national identity, and religious beliefs. This is rarely violent conflict in specific contexts. It examines the manifestation of this conflict an easy task. in places where ethnicity, nationalism, and religious identity coincide. The distinctive gendered impact of this conflict is noted. Gendered Conflict Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Religion There is a gendered component to conflict in that men and boys often have different experiences of war compared with women and girls (Cockburn 1998; Religion and conflict have an uneasy, often contradictory relationship in that Meintjes, Pillay, and Turshen 2001; Pankhurst 2008). Galuh Wandita's sometimes religion initiates or spurs conflict, other times it transforms conflict to ethnographic fieldwork highlights how violent conflict affects women. While her encourage peace. Historically, "religions have contributed to social discord and to research is on women from Asia, the key patterns that emerge from her findings harmony, and they have inspired and legitimized violence and peacemaking" (Volf 10 11