Women of China Imperialism and Women’s Resistance 1900-1949 Bobby Siu Zed Press, 57 Caledonian Road, London NI 9DN Women of China was first published by Zed Press, 57 Caledonian Road, London NI 9DN in 1982. Copyright ©Bobby Siu 1981 Typeset by Lyn Caldwell Proofread by Penelope Ftyxell Cover design Jan Brown Printed by Redwood Bum, Trowbridge, Wiltshire All rights reserved U.S. Distributor: Lawrence Hill & Co., 520 Riverside Avenue, Westport, Conn. 06880, U.S.A. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Siu, Bobby Women of China. 1. Feminism — China — History — 20th century 1. Title 305.4’2’0951 HQ1736 ISBN 0 905762 584Hb ISBN 0 905762 63 0Pb Contents Note on Romanization viii Acknowledgements ix Preface xiii Introduction 1 1. The Faces of Imperialism S The Development of Imperialism 5 Imperialism and China 15 Conclusion 32 2. Imperialism and the Chinese Economy 37 The Cotton Textile Handicraft Industry 37 Imperialism and the Chinese Route to Industrialization 43 Foreign Interests in the Chinese Economy 46 Agriculture under Imperialism 49 Kuomintang Mismanagement: Militarization, Famine and Inflation 63 Conclusion 68 3. The Consequences for Women 73 The Position of Chinese Women before 1949 73 The Decline of the Handicraft Industry and Peasant Women 81 Exploitation and Oppression of Working-Class Women 85 Conclusion 93 4. Women’s Ideas of Resistance 99 Themes and Rationales 100 Proposed Strategies 105 Proposed Tactics 108 Conclusion 111 5. Straggling Together: Women, Peasants and Labourers 120 The Major Peasant and Labour Movements 120 The Rise of the Women’s Resistance Movement, 1902-12 124 The Movement Subdued, 1913-18 127 The Movement Regains its Strength, 1919-27 128 Protest Despite Repression, 1928-37 134 The Great Mobilization, 1938-45 137 Resistance Turns to Revolution, 1946-49 142 Conclusion 143 6. Policies and Tactics of Mobilizing Women 151 Policies of Mobilization 151 Mobilization Tactics 162 Mass Line versus Elitist Strategies 167 Conclusion 171 7. Lessons from the Chinese Women’s Movement 178 Statistical Appendix 184 Bibliography 193 List of Tables 1.1 Foreign Investment, 1862-1960 1.2 U.S. and U.K. Share of World Industrial Output, 1820-1950 1.3 U.S. Private Foreign Investment, 1897-1958 1.4 Japanese Foreign Trade as a Percentage of National Income 1.5 Property Owned by Imperialist Countries in Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Hankou, Guangzhou, Qingdao and Harbin 1.6 Annual Imports of Opium to China, 1795-1838 1.7 Chinese Public Debts, 1865-1948 1.8 Chinese Loans from Imperialist Countries, 1902-48 1.9 Tariff on Imports, 1873-1936 1.10 Foreign Investment in China, 1902-48 1.11 Foreign Capital in China, 1914-48 1.12 Foreign Capital in Manufacturing Industries, 1936 1.13 Chinese Government Revenues and Expenditure in the International Market 1.14 Chinese Government Revenues and Expenditure, 1937-47 2.1 Estimated Yarn and Cloth Consumed in China, 1871-80 and 1901-10 2.2 Raw Cotton, Cotton Yarn and Cotton Goth in Annual Foreign Imports, 1871-1947 2.3 Capital, Looms and Workshops in 142 Handicraft Weaving Work­ shops, 1899-1913 2.4 Output of Cotton Yarn in the K.M.T.-Controlled Region, 1933 and 1938-46 2.5 Decline of Chinese-Owned Industries, 1928-34 2.6 Tonnage of Foreign Ships Trading in China, 1913-18 2.7 Decline of Non-Tenant Peasants Owning Land in Three Provinces 2.8 Changes in Social Stratification, 1928-33 2.9 Distribution of Land, 1933 2.10 Farm Size, 1890-1933 2.11 Commoditization of the Peasant Economy, 1921-25 2.12 Dependency of Peasant Households on the Market Economy in Heilongiang, 1922-23 2.13 Index Numbers of Change in Rural Population and Area of Farm Land, 1873-1933 2.14 Occupations of Big Landlords in Jiangsu, 1930 2.15 Fixed Rate Rent-in-Kind in Three Regions, 1934 2.16 Index Numbers of Prices of Produce and Rents in Sichuan, 1937-42 2.17 Changing Price Index of Commodities in Nancheng (in Jiangxi), 1907-32 2.18 Proportion of Prices of Marketed Commodities Received by Peasants, 1926-35 2.19 Distribution of Lands among Peasants in Cangsong (in Guangxi) 2.20 Distribution of Debtors among Peasants in Four Districts 2.22 Sources of Loans for Peasants, 1934 2.23 Notes Issue and Price Index, 1937-48 2.24 Wartime Deficits, 1937-45 2.25 Purchasing Power Index, 1937-45 3.1 Women Workers in the Labour Force (except Agriculture), 1912-20 3.2 Women Workers in Manufacturing Industries in Shanghai, 1930 3.3 Daily Wages of Male and Female Workers in the Cotton Textile Industry, ca. 1929 3.4 Monthly Expenditure of Workers in Shanghai, ca. 1927 3.5 Holidays for Women Workers in Tianjin, 1927 3.6 Workers and their Illnesses in an Industrial Hospital in Shanghai in the early 1930s 3.7 Industrial Accidents in 1936 Statistical Appendix A. British Foreign Investment in China, 1875-1950 B. U.S. Mergers in Manufacturing and Mining, 1895-1907 C. U.S. Average Annual Rates of Per Capita Growth during 1839-99 and 1899-1939 D. Rates of Profit of U.S. Manufacturing Industry, 1889-1919 E. Shares of World Industrial Output, 1920-50 F. Production Controlled by the Mitsui Trust, 1900-43 G. The Big Four Japanese Corporate Groups H. Concentration of National Wealth in Japan, 1887-1939 I. Growth of the Protestant Church in China, 1889-1919 J. Protestant Missionary Schools and Enrolment in China, 1919 K. Effects of the Treaty of Nanjing on Chinese Tariff Rates L Imports of British Machine-Made Cotton Goth and Yam, 1829-42 M. Imports of British Machine-Made Cotton Products, 1843-56 N. Price and Quantity Indices of Imported Cotton Yarn and Goth O. Rates of Exploitation and Profit in the Chinese-Owned Cotton Textile Factories, 1932 P. Spindles and Looms in Chinese- and Foreign-Owned Cotton Textile Factories, 1897-1947 Q. Comparison of Japanese and British Spindles and Looms in China, 1915-36 R. Non-Tenant Peasants Owning Land in Inner Mongolia and North­ western China, Northern China, Central and Southern China, 1936 S. Privatization of Public Lands T. Number of Chinese Chambers of Commerce and their Membership, 1912-18 U. Seasonal Prices of Rice, Wheat, Kaoliang and Yellow Beans in Four Districts, 1936 V. Changing Pattem of Money-Lenders, 1938-46 Dedication To Stephanie Holbik Note oif Romanization I have used the Hanyu Pinyin system of romanization in this book. This system is the official system used in the People’s Republic of China, and Asian scholars are increasingly using it to romanize the Chinese language. The only exceptions are the names of Chinese authors and institutions previously romanized using other systems. viii Acknowledgements My interest in social movements, especially women's movements, dates back ten years ago to the cafeteria at Champlain College of Trent University. Students gathered there and spent many days and nights talking about the evils of the system and debating the best strategies for effecting social change. Although I was the quiet observer type, their conversations gradually led me to an interest in social movements and social change. Amongst these con­ cerned students were several women who saw the liberation of women as an integral part of the larger social transformation. Their views were quite refreshing, since in Xianggang (Hong Kong) such scepticism was unheard of. That was in 1969-70, when the Canadian women’s liberation movement was still in its infancy. This book, in the final analysis, owes a great debt to those students. When I started working on the Chinese women’s movements seven years ago, the material available was far from extensive. The libraries of the Canadian universities I visited did not even have a section on Women’s Movements, let alone one on the women’s movements in China. After spending a year locating and reading through the materials available in these libraries on the Chinese women’s movements, I found they were not sufficient either in quality or quantity even to write a term paper for an undergraduate course. The general lack of knowledge of the pre-Revolutionary women’s movements in China is very disheartening, especially since this ignorance is not limited to my friends, but is found among historians, sociologists, anthropologists, and even among Chinese scholars — male and female alike. It has been quite painful and difficult to demonstrate that my study was viable and to actually dig through piles of dusty newspapers and unread historical documents in dark corners of libraries in remote countries. This experience would have been even more difficult if Stephanie Holbik had not stood by my side during the past seven years. She was a greatly needed source of intellectual and emotional support. Throughout my research, several people proved to be of great help to me. Professor Janet Salaffs critical insight into Chinese society, theory and methodology helped shape my investigation, especially in the initial stages. My conversation and correspondence with Professor Norma Diamond also furthered my understanding of the political situation in China. IX Women of China: Origins of Oppression During my research in Xianggang, Sister Margaret Ho (of Chu Hai College) provided useful guidance in locating sources on Chinese women. Marjorie Topley (of the Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong) shared her research expertise in the area of Chinese history with me. Two women whom I met in 1975 deserve special mention: Matilda Ng (of the Hong Kong Council of Women), who enlightened me with her first-hand experience of the histori­ cal development of Chinese women’s movements and their difficulties in organizing and mobilizing women in Xianggang; and Teresa Ng (of the International Feminist League), who told me about her experience as a feminist in a male-oriented society. While doing research in Taiwan, I came to know several people who deserve more than mere acknowledgement: John Ku was most helpful and introduced me to different scholars in my area of research. Bessie Shih, a ‘traditional’ Chinese woman, provided me with her view of why Chinese women do not ‘need’ to be liberated. Professor Chialin Pao and Weihong Lin (of the National University of Taiwan) provided me with valuable insights into certain areas of the Chinese women’s movements before 1912. Lin's insistence on the high status of women in Taiwan should be noted, even though I finally remained unconvinced. Professor Yufa Chang (of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica) suggested several sources of data which I was unaware of. Chorman Ching, whose assistance was greatly needed, speeded the comple­ tion of this book. Our Christmas dinner of 1977 will be remembered by me for years to come. Wherever I went, I needed the expertise and guidance of many librarians. The staff of the following libraries were particularly helpful: the East Asian Library of the University of Toronto, the Asian Studies Library of the University of British Columbia, John Robarts Library of the University of Toronto, Harvard-Yenching Library, East-Asian Library of Columbia Uni­ versity, Fung Ping Shan Library of the University of Hong Kong, the Union Research Institute Library, the Central Library of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong City Hall library, the Reference library of the Public Record Office of Hong Kong, the Sun Yat Sen Library, the University Service Centre of Xianggang, the Party Archives Commission of Guomindang under the Guomindang Central Committee, the Institute of Modern History of the Academic Sinica, the Intelligence Bureau of the Ministry of National Defence, the Taiwan National University Library (Graduate Library), and the National Central Library of Taiwan. Two librarians deserve special mention: Kuangmei Lin of the Taiwan National University Library and P.C. Yu of the Asian Studies Library of the University of British Columbia. Some of the material included in this book was presented as academic papers in different conferences: The Impact of Foreign Textile Goods on the Peasant Economy in Nineteenth-Century China with Special Reference to the Status of Women’ (Annual meeting of the Canadian Society for Asian Studies, 1978) is included in Chapters Two and Three; '“Anti-Imperialism” in Chinese Women’s Journals, 1900-1949’ (Annual meeting of the Canadian Society for x