‘VIRILE STRENGTH IN A FEMININE BREAST:’ WOMEN, HOSTAGESHIP, CAPTIVITY, AND SOCIETY IN THE ANGLO-FRENCH WORLD, c. 1000- c.1300 A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Colleen Elizabeth Slater August 2009 © 2009 Colleen Elizabeth Slater ‘VIRILE STRENGTH IN A FEMININE BREAST:’ WOMEN, HOSTAGESHIP, CAPTIVITY, AND SOCIETY IN THE ANGLO-FRENCH WORLD, c. 1000- c.1300 Colleen Elizabeth Slater, Ph. D. Cornell University 2009 Hostage and captive-taking were fundamental to medieval warfare and medieval society in general. Despite their importance, however, until recently, these practices have received very little scholarly attention. In particular, the relationship between gender and these practices has been virtually ignored. The evidence, however, belies this neglect, and the sources are littered with examples that not only illuminate the importance of women and gender to these customs, but also how women used them to exercise power and independence militarily, politically, socially, and religiously. Moreover, women worked within a patriarchal society that was often deeply distrustful of their participation in hostage and captive situations in any capacity. This thesis attempts to fill the gaps in the scholarship and illuminate the importance of considering gender when examining hostage- and captiveship. It pulls together evidence from a wide variety of historical and literary sources to suggest that women were not only victims of these processes as hostages and captives themselves, but were also active participants in them as hostage and captive takers, ransomers, and holders. Moreover, they were sometimes but not always accepted in such roles. It will also be suggested here that women were essential to medieval men’s understanding of male roles in these activities. Medieval society possessed deep- seated anxieties about the fate of hostage and captive women that were played out in a wide variety of sources. As will be demonstrated here, by exploring all the ways in which women and gender intersection with hostage and captive-taking practices, we can more greatly understand not only how women shaped medieval military matters, but also familial relationships social hierarchies, family relationships, religious conflicts and agreements, understandings of emotions, power, authority, love, and hate; as well as theories and practices of rulership. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Colleen Elizabeth Slater received her Bachelor of Arts in 2002 from the University of Puget Sound in Tacoma, Washington. She graduated summa cum laude with honors in her department and won the university prize for best undergraduate thesis. Prior to receiving her Ph.D., she received her Masters of Arts in History from Cornell University in 2005 and was the recipient of several fellowships, including the Jesse F. and Dora H. Bluestone Peace Studies Fellowship and the Mommsen Research Fellowship. ii i To my Mom and Dad: for putting me on the right path. To James: for saving me from myself when I needed it most. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No project such as this can ever been done without mountains of support. Thank you to my advisors Paul Hyams, Rachel Weil, and John Najemy for taking the time to nurture a young woman whose passion for history sometimes outweighed her skills at coherently expressing her ideas. Your collective wisdom and patience has always been and will continue to be much appreciated. Each of you has taught me to think in new ways and pushed me beyond my limits. Paul, thank you for sharing your expansive knowledge of the Middle Ages and challenging me to ask the right kinds of questions. Thank you, too, for your sense of humor, the cups of tea, the gentle reminders that I need not get so over-wrought, the admonishment that I need to stop dithering and get to writing, and the freedom to pursue my own path. Rachel, you were right from our very first conversation about the dissertation: I was destined to write about hostages and captives. Thank you for opening my eyes to feminist scholarship and to the connections between the medieval and the early modern. You have helped me to see my work not in isolation, but as a part of a broader context that was essential. John, Machiavelli will never be the same for me, nor will the Renaissance. Thank you for introducing me to Florence. Like Rachel, you taught me the connections between the world I study and yours, and I am richer for it. All of you have taught me that the boundaries of the past are often artificial and that as historians we must think beyond our preconceived notions. I have over the years burdened many people with chapters to read and comment on, and two in particular deserve special mention. Thank you to Professor Theresa Earenfight, who has been a constant source of support, encouraging me to have faith in my ideas and opening me to new scholarship. Thank you, too, to my long-time mentor, friend, and red-ink provider, Frances Snyder. Although I know you v would humbly deny it, you are probably the most fundamental reason I am where I am today. You not only helped me with my writing, but you taught me and constantly encouraged me to explore history, to appreciate books and learning. My life is blessed because you are my friend. I must also thank my undergraduate advisor and mentor, Professor Nancy Bristow. She has been a source of strength and advice throughout both my undergraduate and graduate career, and it was her inspiration and confidence in me that led me to professional academics. Thank you for having faith in my abilities. Thank you also to all of my fellow graduate students at Cornell past and present. We suffered and triumphed together, and frankly, there are times I would not have survived if it had not been for the various shoulders to cry on and the multitude of words of encouragement that can always been found in the basement of McGraw Hall. In particular, however, I must express my deepest gratitude to Christopher Bailey, who not only makes a great neighbor, but also the best of friends. You were there for the good, the bad, and the downright ugly; thanks for putting up with me! Not only that but I learned to hone my ideas in our many talks, and my intellect, whatever its capacity, has been greatly improved by your suggestions, criticisms, and questions. Thank you also to Martin Loicano, who never failed when I was stressed, worn out, or at my wits’ end, to find a way to make it all seem manageable and put things in perspective. I miss Friendly’s coffee and ice cream with you. I also wish to thank the various members of the Society for Medieval Feminist Scholarship. Thank you so much for being such a wonderful group of scholars and friends. All of you have helped me to feel at home in the academic world and navigate what is often a very difficult process. As it is proverbially said, it takes a village to raise a child, and I was lucky enough to have one heck of a village. Thank you to all of my family and friends back v i home. They suffered through my frustrations, and cheered my success with abandon. I have relied on their wisdom, love, generosity, encouragement, and shelter my whole life, and I am as successful as I am because of them. I am blessed in more ways than I deserve, and I am grateful. Each and every one of you have helped me make my dreams possible. But most of all, from the bottom of my heart, I thank my parents, whose steadfast support in every imaginable way has been my foundation. We do not get to pick our parents, and I won the world’s biggest jackpot with them. Lastly, to James, who has been through and survived the writing of the dissertation and the job market, and done so with love and grace, no easy task. Sei la mia anima gemella. vi i TABLE OF CONTENTS Biographical Sketch………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication…………………………………………………………………...……..… iv Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………..…… v List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………..….. ix Introduction: Why Hostage- and Captiveship?............................................................. 1 Chapter One: “Under the Yoke of Lamentable Captivity:” Exploring the “Rules” of Hostage- and Captiveship…………………………….14 Chapter Two: “…Nor could anyone report it, / That there were any women so wretchedly tormented:” Women as Hostages and Captives in the Anglo-French World……………...… 68 Chapter Three: “So Hard was it to Release Princes whom Fortuna had put in her Chains:” Women as Hostage and Captive-Takers, Givers, and Holders………………………………………….. 113 Chapter Four: “Pre Desiderio Delicti Uiri Sui:” Female Hostage and Captive Ransomers and Negotiators…………………………….. 146 Chapter Five: “Every Trace of a Woman’s Gentleness Removed from her Face:” Abuse, Gender, and Politics in the Case of the Empress Matilda and the Battle of Lincoln, 1141………………………………………………………………….. 197 Conclusion: The Broader Implications of Women’s Participation in Hostage- and Captive-taking Traditions…………………………………………………………………………... 240 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...249 viii