DOĞUS UNIVERSITY Institute of Social Sciences MA in English Literature WOMAN and LOVE in MEDIEVAL COURTLY LITERATURE: the REAL and the FICTIONAL MA THESIS Evren Birkan 200689007 Advisor: Prof. Dr. Dilek Doltaş Istanbul, 2011 i TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS..………………………………………………………………….….ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...………………………………………………………………....iv ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………....v ÖZET…………………………………………...……………………….…………………….vi INTRODUCTION..……………………………………………………...…………………….1 CHAPTER 1. Arabs and the West I. The Encounter of Cultures Through Translations….…….…………………….4 II. History of Al-Andalus..……………………...……………………………........5 CHAPTER 2. The Concept of Love in Hispano-Arabic Poetry I. Form and Content of Hispano-Arabic Poetry…..…...………….……..………12 A. Ibn Hazm ..…………………………………………………….………14 B. Ibn Quzman……………………………………………………………21 C. Ibn Arabi…………………………………………….…………………26 II. Dante and Love ……………………………………………………………….33 CHAPTER 3. The State of the Woman and the Conception of Love in Medieval Europe I. Feudalism and Woman in the Middle Ages...…...……………………………36 II. Marriage and Courtly Love in Twelfth Century Europe………..……….……40 III. The Knight and the Church….……………………………………..…………42 IV. Troubadours and Secular Love……………………………………….……….44 V. The Image of the Courtly Lady in Troubadour Poetry………………………..44 VI. The Art of Courtly Love: Medieval Facts and Fictional Conventions…...........48 CHAPTER 4. Chivalric Romance and Courtly Love in Medieval England I. The Lady in Life and Fiction...……..…...………….………………….…...…52 II. Geoffrey Chaucer and the Medieval Conception of love…………….….……53 A. The Canterbury Tales……………………………….………...……. 57 1. General Prologue………………………………..….……………57 2. The Knight’s Tale..................………………………………....….59 a. Courtly Love and Woman in The Knight’s Tale................60 b. Emily and Courtly Love in The Knight’s Tale...................67 III. Sir Thomas Malory, Chivalric Romance and Courtly Love.............................72 ii A. King Arthur in History, Legends and Literature....................................73 B. Malory‟s Sources....................................................................................74 C. Le Morte Darthur...................................................................................75 D. Women and Love in Le Morte Darthur..................................................77 1. Courtly Love Leading to Marriage: Sir Gareth and Dame Lyonesse……………………………...…………………...78 2. Courtly Love and Adultery: Lancelot and Guenivere...….80 CONCLUSION …………………….………………………………………..………….……87 WORKS CITED …………………………………………………….…………...…………..89 BIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………....………………..95 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to all those who trusted in me backed me in the writing of this thesis. First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Dilek Doltaş for her invaluable assistance, support and guidance in the completion of this thesis. Special thanks are due to Assist. Prof. Dr. Mine Özyurt Kılıç for the encouragement she gave me at my most difficult moments, Dr. Kılıç was also the supervisor of the first draft of the thesis. I am of course deeply grateful to my family for their incessant understanding and support. They pushed me onwards, heartened me and assisted me not only in my time of need but throughout the researching and writing of this thesis. iv ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine the formal and thematic interaction of the poetry of medieval Arabs with Western literature through the Troubadour poets in France. In the love poetry of Arabs, where divine love is the central theme, the poet‟s muse is sometimes described as an unattainable divine being, sometimes as a very beautiful woman with earthly qualities. This attitude to woman observed in the poems of Arab writers has had a significant influence, firstly on the Troubadour poets of Southern France, then through the French and the Italian writers on the English. In tracing this influence the present study also tries to draw attention on the paradoxes and dilemmas inherent in the presentation of courtly love and the image of the woman which arise from the unrealistic conditions of life in medieval Europe. In medieval Christian societies “woman” was seen either as Eve, the temptress to be avoided by men or as Virgin Mary, the unreal, unattainable noble and virgin lady who could not be a wife and a beloved but a divinity to be adored. The present study argues that the courtly love poetry that had its sources in Arabic and Troubadour poems foregrounds the irreconcilability of fact and fiction concerning the medieval European man‟s approach to the concepts of love and the “woman”. In building this argument the study will analyze first the love poetry of three early medieval Arab poets namely: Ibn Hazm, Ibn Quzman and Ibn Arabi, who are considered the leading figures of Arabic literature; and then The Knight’s Tale of Geoffrey Chaucer and Le Morte Darthur of Thomas Malory as the two most well-known chivalric love romances of British medieval literature. v ÖZET Bu çalışmanın amacı, Ortaçağ Arap şiirinin Fransa‟daki Troubadour şairleri aracılığıyla, Batı edebiyatı ile olan etkileşimini teknik ve konu bakımından incelemektir. Arap aşk şiirlerindeki ana tema ilahi aşktır. Şaire ilham veren kadın figürü bazen ulaşılmaz ilahi bir varlık, bazen de dünyevi özelliklere sahip güzel bir kadın olarak tasvir edilir. Aşk ve kadın tasvirinin konu olduğu Arap edebiyatının bu özelliklerinin, ilk olarak Güney Fransa‟daki Troubadour şairleri, sonrasında ise Fransa aracılığı ile İtalyan ve son olarak da İngiliz yazarları üzerinde önemli etkileri görülmektedir. Bu çalışma aynı zamanda, Ortaçağ Avrupa‟sındaki yaşam koşulları ve „courtly love‟ şiirlerindeki kadın imajının tasviri arasındaki ikilem ve çelişkilere de dikkat çekmeye çalışır. Ortaçağ Hıristiyan toplumunda kadın hem erkeklerin kaçındığı baştan çıkarıcı Havva, hem de, eş veya sevgili olmaktan uzak, ulaşılmaz kutsal bakire Meryem olarak görülürdü. Ortaçağ Avrupa‟sı erkeklerinin gerçek ve kurgusal düzlemlerde kadın ve aşk anlayışlarının bu zıtlığı, kaynağında Arap ve Troubadour şiirlerini barındıran „courtly love‟ şiirleri sayesinde gözler önüne serilmektedir. Bu tartışmayı oluştururken, öncelikle Ortaçağ Arap şiir edebiyatının önde gelen temsilcileri olan üç farklı şair; Ibn Hazm, Ibn Quzman ve Ibn Arabi‟nin aşk temalı şiirleri incelenecek ve sonrasında Ortaçağ İngiliz romans edebiyatının önemli eserleri arasında yer alan Geoffrey Chaucer‟ın Şövalyenin Hikâyesi ve Sir Thomas Malory‟nin Arthur’un Ölümü ele alınacaktır. vi 1 INTRODUCTION The aim of this thesis is two-fold. First it tries to show that Troubadour poetry, as the predecessor of the courtly love tradition in Europe, plays a major role in the conceptualization of love in the literature of Europe in the following ages, and that the Western understanding of love was modelled to a great extent after the love poetry of the Arabic poets of Al-Andalus. Spanish Orientalist, Julian Ribera (1858-1934) is among the pioneers of this argument. Roger Boase in his book The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love refers to Ribera‘s ideas and says, ―Ribera maintained that the principle of Troubadour music was learnt from the Arabs‖ (1977, 29); by this, he is referring merely to melody and rhythm. In another source, Boase again quotes the Spanish scholar saying ―the word trobar might derive from the Arabic verb taraba, [which means] to sing to play music; to be moved by joy of grief; to fill with delight‖ (1994, 458). Secondly, by analyzing relevant sections of the poetry of major Arabic writers of the period, The Knight’s Tale of Geoffrey Chaucer, and Le Morte Darthur of Sir Thomas Malory, the thesis seeks to display the paradoxes and contradictions inherent in the expression of divine and secular love and the role of the woman in the courtly love literature of medieval Europe. Arabic love poetry is a tradition that predates Islam but it is enriched through its contact with Islamic mysticism. After the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs the cultural exchange between the East and the West contributed to the multidimensional perspective and vision of religious mysticism Islamic and Christian alike. Major works of Arabic verse especially those produced between the ninth and the twelfth centuries point to the powerful influence of Islamic mysticism on the love poetry of Arabic writers. Among the most prominent Arabic poets is Ibn Hazm, whose book The Ring of the Dove is about love and its effects on the soul. Ibn Quzman who wrote his Diwan at the height of Arab governance in Al-Andalus has a special place in the literature of Al-Andalus. He was both the pioneer of a new form of strophic poetry, which was later used by the Troubadours and a wandering poet singing his poetry in knightly courts again like his successors, the Troubadours. Then comes the mystic philosopher and poet Ibn Arabi who immortalized his passion for his imaginary beloved in his book, The Interpreter of Desires. Central to the poetry of these Arabic poets is their preoccupation with ‗love‘ and ‗female beauty‘. Ibn Hazm venerates woman in his love poems. For him the feminine figure is divine. He 2 expresses his love in terms of divine love. Ibn Quzman also glorifies his beloved in his poems but unlike Ibn Hazm, his descriptions of women are more earthly than divine. Although the style and language of Ibn Arabi from time to time gives the impression of one expressing earthly love, his main focus is always the love of God. Arabi describes his beloved as a reflection of God – and even God himself. In other words, Arabic poetry of the time intermingles earthly and divine love. Women are pictured as passive objects of love in the poems of Hazm and Arabi. They are always unattainable and idealized. The beloved is both a divine figure that must be worshipped and an object of desire which stimulates in the lover the emotions that lead to the attainment of transcendental love. When we look at the works of the established courtly love writers of the Middle Ages in Europe, we can trace many similarities between Medieval Christian poets and Arabic Sufi ones. Their treatment of the theme of ―love‖ and the ―woman,‖ language they use in discussing these topics resemble one another. Medieval European writers idealize and glorify the female figure, and describe the power of love on the lover in ways very similar to the Arabic Sufi poets. In this thesis I will follow a chronological sequence and discuss first the early medieval Arab understanding of love, particularly its depiction of the ‗woman‘ within the Arabic- Sufi love tradition. Then I will try to show how European writers have reinterpreted these concepts to suit their societies and their own religio-cultural conventions, pointing out the contradictions and paradoxes that exist between fact and fiction in medieval Europe on these issues. In the first chapter the conquest of Spain by the Arabs and the translation of Arabic texts into European languages are briefly discussed. In the second chapter the works of the three major Arabic poets of love are studied, keeping in mind the similarities and differences in their respective works. The third chapter focuses on the social and cultural conditions of Europe in the Middle Ages, and studies the position of women in the feudal Christian world. The possibility of love between a man and a woman either within or outside marriage is explored with reference to the historical texts of the times and the poetry of the Troubadours who focus on these issues. In the fourth chapter, the image of the courtly beloved in Medieval European literature is portrayed and its paradoxes are discussed 3 through the agency of Geoffrey Chaucer‘s Emily in The Knight’s Tale and some key women figures in Sir Thomas Malory‘s Le Morte Darthur. After originating in Al-Andalus and being passed on to the Troubadour poets of France, the Eastern conception of the woman – at least with regard to poetry - and the focus on the theme of secular or divine love spread to other European countries, eventually reaching Chaucer and Malory. These men blended this idea of love and the woman‘s role with their own cultures and refashioned them after their own views. Chaucer‘s figuration of Emily, for example, perfectly fits the description of the conventional beauty of the courtly beloved, and the polarity between divine and earthly love is also maintained in the tale. Emily is portrayed as an idealized romance heroine, yet her role in the tale displays the status of a typical woman in medieval European society who lacks agency and independent will in the face of male dominance and control. She does not act as a fully formed individual; she is a beautiful object to be adorned and desired. Her presentation in the tale complements the typical frame of romance narratives: a courageous and combative knight lover and his appealing lady. In the case of Malory, his female characters are delineated as much more powerful and strong willed figures. There is the bold and unfaithful Guenivere, for example, and the formidable Dame Lyonesse. Again the presence of the beloved complements the ideals of the chivalric world and the woman once more remains the object of man‘s sexual desire. Malory‘s female characters, however, use their social power, sexuality and even magic to manipulate men. They are not unattainable women figures; in fact, their aloofness depends on their own free will. Malory‘s female protagonists are free to love. What‘s more, they are passionate lovers and have the courage to express their feelings. The last chapter thematically links the previous chapters which depict and analyze the theme of love and the image of the woman. It tries to show how the image of the unattainable, almost divine beloved in the love lyrics of Arabic poets becomes in Chaucer an idealized stereotype and a vivid person with will and agency in Malory. Both Chaucer and Malory in their different ways satirize how hypothetically medieval society treats the so-called ‗all-important‘ ideas of love, sexuality, loyalty, faith between a man and a woman. 4 CHAPTER I Arabs and the West I. The Encounter of Cultures Through Translations Arabic poetic tradition, particularly in the way that it conflated divine and earthly love, strongly influenced the courtly love tradition that flourished in the Middle Ages. In the Islamic life and literature women had been venerated either as mothers or as the inspiration of transcendental love for men. The image of the woman, in the medieval European literature however, occupied a paradoxical position. Women were presented both as objects of sexual desire and as instigators of pure divine love. This paradox continues to exist throughout the medieval and Renaissance literatures and we believe it has its sources in the Arabic poetry tradition. It is observed in the works of the Troubadour poets, then again in the works of the famous Italian poet Dante and then in the poetry of many French and the English poets including Geoffrey Chaucer and Sir Thomas Malory. A truth that must be underlined, however, is that Arabic literature is not the only source of the love poems of the Troubadour poets. Troubadours took whatever they needed from Arabic poetry and blended it with their own, thus creating their own style and poetry. The same must be said for Dante, Chaucer and Malory. The main idea which shall be highlighted here is the point of intersection between the literary works of two different cultures, Islam and Christianity, vis a vis the theme of love and the portrayal of woman. Moreover, not only the thematic and stylistic similarities and differences between the products of these cultures shall be examined but the socio-cultural and historical conditions in which they were produced will also be discussed. At the height of Islamic hegemony, the intersection of cultures between the Islamic world and the West occurred in two centers. The first was Spain, especially the city of Toledo, and the latter was Sicily. These two centers were the contact points of Islamic culture at its zenith; this was also the time when Europe was only slowly emerging from the Dark Ages. With the excursion of Pope Sylvester II (946 –1003) to Cordoba between the years of 967- 970, new ideas and knowledge about Arabic culture and art began to be introduced to Europe. The next exchange between Arabs and Westerners occurred after the capture of