Within-person variation in personality and psychological well-being By Jamie Churchyard Submitted to the University of Hertfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctorate in philosophy (PhD). Submitted November 2013. I Abstract Personality is one of the most broad and complex areas in psychology. This has led to many researchers attempting to reduce this complexity by focusing solely on how habitual personality differs between each individual (inter-individual differences). This is important to study, but it has been focused on so heavily that research into how each individual personality varies within the person (intra-individual differences) has been neglected in comparison. Recent research has started to examine intra-individual variation in personality more thoroughly. One research aim of this programme was to establish the nature of several different types of within person variability including inter-item variation (variation within the test responses for a personality trait), and cross-contextual variation in personality (variation according to context), to see whether these types of variability are associated with psychological outcomes. Three research questions were examined to this end: 1) What is the extent of meaningful variability in personality trait test responding? 2) What are the predictors of intra-individual variability in personality? 3) What is the relative importance of the person and situational factors in personality variability? The first question was developed to try and determine whether the individual can display meaningful inter-item variation in ratings of specific behaviours within personality trait measures. Trait questionnaires are usually only analysed at the between subject level, and within subject variation in inter-item ratings have not been extensively examined in relation to meaningful psychological outcomes. The second and third questions were developed to look into the nature of cross-contextual personality, and establish whether within person personality differences are influenced more strongly by the person or situation. The studies conducted towards answering these questions demonstrated a person-based capacity to II display intra-individual variability. A second aim of the research programme was to see whether the capacity to display these types of variability can be utilised in behaviour change. The fourth research question was developed to try and understand how a person can display intra-individual variability, yet still be resistant to changing negative habits: 4) How do the different aspects in personality variability help explain why some people are resistant to change, especially with regard to behaviours that are bad for them? This question was answered by theoretically discussing the findings from the three previous studies which proposed that positive or problematic behaviour could be interpreted with a simple path to understand the process of behavioural action: The individual receives feedback from a behaviour response which either validates or invalidates their action in the situation context (does or does not receive a desired outcome). Reinforcement of the behaviour happens if it is validated by positive feedback. Alternately reconstruction of the situation happens if the behaviour is invalidated. This allows for two types of intra-individual variability. One is flexibility in behaviour responses to different situations under the individual’s control. The other is change according to the situation, where the behaviour is invalidated and an alternative is attempted. A problematic behaviour may have benefit in stopping something invalidating, but if repeated it may become a habit needed for psychological functioning. As part of the second research aim a behaviour change strategy was developed and piloted to try and bring the individual closer to their construct of the ideal self. Instructions were provided for the individual to experiment with that differed from their disposition. The programmes had varied degrees of success depending on the participant. The implications for personality research and behaviour change are discussed. III Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professors Ben (C) Fletcher and Karen Pine, for giving me the opportunity to conduct this research programme. They have both helped me throughout, from funding applications to having the patience to read through and help refine the many draft versions of papers I sent. Without their support, none of this would have been possible. Thanks also to Dr Shivani Sharma, for providing good recruitment advice, and opportunities in the department. A big thank you to anyone who participated in my research, I am really grateful you took the time to help me out. Thanks to all the friends I have made at during my PhD at UH for the good times. Although particular credit has to go to Neil Howlett, for entertaining banter, beers and being a great sounding board. Also to Nuriye Kupeli, for being along for the ride, from the Masters days to the last gasp of the PhD, and for regularly listening to me complain. Finally, a massive thank you to my mum and dad, for always supporting me throughout my studies, and accepting the choices I have made. I know becoming a psychologist probably was not the first career choice you had in mind... IV Contents: Abstract II Acknowledgements IV Index of tables XII Index of figures XIV Glossary of terms XVI Preface XVIII Chapter 1: A brief history of personality research, and why intra-individual variability is important to study. 1 Nomothetic and Idiographic approaches to personality research 4 Nomothetic personality questionnaire development 4 Idiographic methods of examining personality 9 The Self-other report relationship 12 How is all this important to the topic of intra-individual personality variability or change 15 Framework for internal transformation (FIT) science 20 The cognitive and affective personality system (CAPS) theory 21 The research questions 24 V Chapter 2: Personality traits and meaningful variation within trait questionnaire responding. 27 Literature review Traditional trait personality theories 28 Broad traits and narrow facets as predictors of behaviour acts and outcomes 32 Self perceived variation in behaviour 36 Trait personality and situational context 41 Trait relevant behaviours and dispositions in relation to situation context 41 The frame of reference effect in trait questionnaires 44 Traitedness and Metatraits 47 An accommodating theory for the literature reviewed so far 52 Study 1: Same traits, different variance: Within subject variation in personality trait measures 56 Introduction 56 Method 60 Results 65 Discussion 86 Chapter summary 91 VI Chapter 3: Understanding the processes and predictors of intra-individual variability in personality. 92 Literature review Modern behaviour formation research 93 Reinforcement sensitivity theory 95 Regulatory modes: Locomotion and assessment 98 Self-regulatory strength and ego depletion 100 Diary studies of personality states 102 Study 2: Intra-individual variation in HEXACO personality states as predicted by context 111 Introduction 111 Method 114 Results 118 Discussion 139 Chapter summary 145 Chapter 4: The relative importance of the person compared to the situation in intra- individual variability. 146 Literature review Personal construct theory (PCT) 148 Behaviour as an experiment – the PCT view on behaviour performance 148 Triadic elicitation procedure 150 Pyramiding and laddering 152 Cognitive complexity indices derived from the repertory grid 154 VII The role of emotion in personal construct theory 158 The self across contexts as measured using the repertory grid 160 The construing of couples and experimentally created pairings using the repertory grid 162 Combined idiographic personal construct and nomothetic trait repertory grid studies 166 Bringing PCT research together with previous processing research 167 Study 3: A personal construct study of intra-individual variation: Person and situation influences. 168 Introduction 168 Method 171 Results 175 Discussion 192 Chapter summary 201 Chapter 5: Do personality variation and behavioural flexibility reduce resistance to change in habit? 202 Integrating research so far 202 The advantages of displaying a varied personality 207 The importance of engagement rather than withdrawing 208 Use of engagement in modern behaviour change strategies 210 Chapter summary 219 VIII Chapter 6: Giving a practical application to the findings of this research programme. 220 Tools and techniques to be applied 221 The Repertory Grid 221 The Flex list of behaviours 223 Study 4: Piloting a strategy to beneficially change an individual’s view of themselves, and acknowledge the capacity to be behaviourally flexible. 224 Introduction 224 Method 226 Results 241 Discussion 263 Chapter summary 270 Chapter 7: The implications of this research programme. 271 Understanding the main strengths and limitations of this research programme 271 Implications of these findings for personality research 274 Implications of these findings for behaviour change 279 Closing statement 283 References 284 IX Appendices 321 A. IPIP-HEXACO questionnaire (developed by Ashton, Lee and Goldberg, 2007). 322 B. Self-Pluralism scale (developed/published by Altrochhi & McReynolds, 1997; McReynolds, Altrochhi & House, 2000). 330 C. Thoughts and Feelings scale (developed by Fletcher and Stead, 2000). 332 D. Satisfaction with Life scale (developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen and Griffin, 1985). 333 E. Twelve contextual life satisfaction items included in addition to the Satisfaction with Life scale (developed by the researcher). 333 F. Three items reflecting tendency towards habitual behaviour (developed by the researcher). 333 G. A short adjective based measure of the six HEXACO traits for use in the diary study (developed by the researcher). 334 H. Categorical indicators of current interpersonal role or social goal orientation in the moment for use in the diary study (developed by the researcher). 336 I. The role titles and repertory rating grid administered during study 3 (as part of chapter 4, developed by the researcher). Supplied construct grid example. 337 J. Behavioural Flexibility scale (developed by Fletcher and Stead, 2000). 338 K. The role titles and repertory grid administered during study 4 (as part of chapter 5, developed by the researcher). Supplied construct grid example. 343 L. Habit Rater items (developed by Fletcher and Pine, 2012). 344 M. Behaviour Rater (developed by Fletcher and Pine, 2012). 345 N. Coping statements (developed by Fletcher and Pine, 2012). 346 O. The information sheet, consent form and debriefing sheet for study 4. 347 P. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 1. 352 Q. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 2. 360 R. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 3. 365 S. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 4. 372 T. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 5. 378 X