Fifth Edition Wine Science Principles and Applications Ronald S. Jackson, PhD AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom Copyright©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Details onhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizations suchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/ permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmaybenoted herein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding, changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation, methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirown safetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofany methods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-816118-0 ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublicationsvisitourwebsiteat https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CharlotteCockle AcquisitionEditor:NancyMaragioglio EditorialProjectManager:HilaryCarr ProductionProjectManager:PremKumarKaliamoorthi CoverDesigner:ChristianBilbow TypesetbyTNQTechnologies This book is dedicated to the memory of Suzanne Ouellet and all those who labor, often in the background and without fanfare, to produce the wines that can so inspire us, the consumer. About the Author Theauthorreceivedhisbachelor’sandmaster’sdegreesfromQueen’sUniversity,Kingston,anddoctoratefrom theUniversityofToronto.HistimeinVineland,Ontario,andsubsequentsabbaticalatCornellUniversityredirected his interest in Botrytis toward viticulture and enology. As part of his teaching duties at Brandon University, he developedthefirstwinetechnologycourseinCanada.Formanyyears,hewasatechnicaladvisortotheManitoba LiquorControlCommission,developingsensoryteststoassesscandidatesforitsSensoryPanel,andwasamember ofitsExternalTastingPanel.Inaddition,heisauthorofWineTasting:AProfessionalHandbook,ConserveWaterDrink Wine,aswellasnumerouschaptersandtechnicalreviews.HeisretiredinOakville,Ontario,butremainsactivein writing,hiking,cycling,swimming,etc.HecanbereachedviaElsevier,525BStreetSuite1800,SanDiego,CA92101- 4495, or through the Cool Climate Viticulture and Oenology Institute, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, whereheis aFellow. xi Preface There are three pillars of wine sciencedgrape culture, wine production, and sensory analysis. Although it is traditionaltocoverthesetopicsseparately,ajointdiscussionreinforcestheirnaturalrelationships. Wine’s botanicalorigin andmicrobial transformation require a discussion of the physiology and genetics of the vine, yeasts, and bacteria. These are crucial to understanding the biologic and chemical genesis of wine quality. Similarly, microclimatology and soil physicochemistry reveal the vineyard derivatives of grape quality. Equally, improvedsensoryproceduresarepermittingvineyardandwinerymodificationstobebetterevaluated,asaclearer understanding of sensory psychophysiology is revealing the basis of wine appreciation and food pairing. Finally, investigation of the health-related aspects of wine consumption is revealing its real, versus imagined, benefits and dangers. Much of the data in the text is derived from a few Western European cultivars. Thus, caution must be taken in extrapolatingthisinformationtootherregionsandcultivars.Conversely,challengingtheestablishedperceptshasled Australian producers to sculpt exceptional wines from cultivars grown under conditions climatically distinct from theirancestralhomelands. Theprincipalthemeoftheworkinvolvesthevariousgeneratorsofwinequality.Assuch,thetextconcentrateson anunderstandingoftheprinciplesofgrapegrowthandwineproduction.Thebenefitsanddeficitsassociatedwiththe various choices at each stage are discussed, providing a background for rational selection of what may be the best optionsunderlocalconditions.Evenbookswitharegionalfocusfinditdifficulttopresentprecisesuggestions.There aretoomanyvariationsevenwithinsmallviticulturalregionstopermitadetailedformulatoberecommendedfor producingparticularwinestylesinapaint-by-numberapproach. Sciencecanonlyprovideevidence-basedguidance,presentreasonsforbestpractice,andenunciatethepotential advantagesanddisadvantagesofoptionsforachievingprecisegoalsdnotechniqueiswithoutdrawbacks.Becauseof seasonal and vineyard variability, it is rarely possible to provide choices with the clarity and certainty that grape growersandwinemakersmightwish.Individualexperimentationisstilltheonlymeansofestablishingwhatworksin aspecificlocation,climate,andsituationaswellashowqualitymaybeenhanced.Sciencecanpresentaroadmap; winemakersdecidetheroute. Onenegativesideeffectofourrapidlyadvancingknowledgeisthepotentialforconfusion.Practitionersoftenget annoyedwithdifferencesinopinionandchangingviewspontificatedbyexperts.Thereisamisconceptionthatsci- entistsknow,ratherthanaresearchersfor,thetruth.Researchstudiesarelimitedbytime,space,funding,andanalytic andstatisticalprocedures,andifwearehonest,biasatalllevels.Nonetheless,lackofagreementisnoreasontoshun decadesofdedicatedresearchandtoembracesuperstitionandlong-disprovenarchaicconcepts.Whywouldanyone genuinely wish to go back to the rigors and pain of medieval, prescientific life? Biodynamic views may simplify decisions,harkeningbacktosomeillusionaryidyllicpast,butatwhatcost?Whatisrequirediscriticalthinkingbased onreasonandevidence.Weneedmore,notless,scienceifaffordable,high-qualitywineisevertofillthesupermarket shelf. It is consumer confidence in product quality that provides employment for millions in the wine industry, maintaining farmland value and stemming the tide of developers intent on covering vineyards with asphalt- interlaced suburbia. Becauseknowledgeisalwaysinastateofflux,presentingwherefurtherstudyisneededisalmostasimportantas outliningcurrentopinion.Whileimpossibletoexhaustivelytreatalldivergentviews,thoseopinionswiththegreatest support,practicalvalue,andrelevancearenoted.Forsomecontentiousissues,furtherinvestigationmaydifferentiate between correlation and causation as well as veracity; for others, personal preference will always be the deciding factor. I extend my apologies to those who may feel that their views have been inadequately or inappropriately presentedorforwhommyexpressedopinionsarenottotheirliking. Theeffectsofglobalwarmingonviticulturearebecomingincreasinglyobviousandconcerning.Althoughitsrate, timing,extent,andeffectsarestillmarginallyconjectural,theclearindicationsaredire.Ifevenmildscenarioscometo fruition,theeffectswillbeenormous.Althoughfamousvineyardsmaybeunderwaterandgrapeadaptationtosite xiii xiv Preface severelydislocated,themostdevastatingeffectswillbeseriousdisruptionstoworldagricultureandthepoliticaland socialturmoilthatwillensue. Forstudents,Ihavetriedtosupplysomeperiodicrespitesfromtechnicaldetailwithsnipsofconjecture,levity,and history. The latter demonstrates the expertise and observational acumen of our forebearers. Not only can this be humbling,butitalsohelpstoexemplifyhowpreviouscultureshaveviewedabeveragesodeartoourhearts. Withtherecentprofusionofgenomicandother-omicstudies,newinsightsintotheevolutionandregulationof grapevineandmicrobialgrowtharebeingrevealed.Whilefascinating,thereisstillagapbetweenthesediscoveries andtheirpracticalapplication.Thus,thereisstillamplescopeforinquiryforthenextgenerationofresearchers. AlistofSuggestedReadingisgivenattheendofeachchaptertoguidefurtherstudy.Citationsinthetextprovide thesourcesoftheinformationnoted.AlthoughmostareinEnglish,wheretherearenoneorthebestsourcesarein foreignlanguages,theseareprovided. Several conventions have been used throughout the text. Where no common chemical name is available or preferred, IUPAC terminology is typically used. For genes and their protein transcripts, the current practice of acronymuseisfollowed,withthefirstlettersofthegenericnameusedtodesignatethehostspecies(e.g.,VvforVitis vinifera). For specific genes, italicized capitals are used (e.g., VvMYBA1), whereas their protein transcripts appear nonitalicized(e.g.,VvMYBA1). Inwritingthistext,IamalwaysremindedofwhatDr.HaroldGood,mymostinfluentialprofessoratQueen’s,once statedinreferencetosomeill-consideredcommentImadejustpriortomyBScgraduation: Ifyouthinkyouhavelearnedagreatdealduringyouryearshere,youshouldnotgraduate.Whatyoushouldhavelearnedistheextent ofyourignorance. Notwhatagraduatingstudentwantstohear,buttrue.Overtheyears,Ihaveincreasinglyinvestigatedthelimitsof that“ignorance,”andcelebratethewondersbeingexposedandanticipatethosetocome.Ourspecieshasdiscovered somuchthatisastounding,butprobablyonlythetipofamuchmorespectacularicebergofinsights. Acknowledgments Withouttheastuteobservationsofgenerationsofwinemakersandgrapegrowersandthededicatedresearchof countlessenologistsandviticulturalists,thisworkwouldnothavebeenpossible.Thus,generalacknowledgmentis giventothosewhoseworkorpublicationshavenotbeenspecificallycited.Appreciationisalsogiventoreviewers who readchaptersand providedconstructive criticism for thefirst edition, as well as individualswhohave taken their time to point out errors, most recently Jean Thurley. Credit must also go to the various editors who have helped over the years in the preparation of various editions of the text. However, special thanks go to Nancy Maragioglio. She has greatly facilitated preparation of the last three editions. Her encouragement and creativity havenotonlyimprovedtheproduct,butalsoaddedtothejoyofitspreparation.Appreciationalsogoestoallthose at Elsevier whose skills have added to the quality of the final product. Gratitude is also expressed to the many researchers, companies, institutes, and publishers who have freely donated photographs, data, diagrams, or figures that illustrate the text. Finally, the work is dedicated to my late wife, Suzanne Ouellet, whose unfailing support and encouragement were essential in bringing the work to fruition. xv C H A P T E R 1 Introduction O U T L I N E Grapevine and wineorigins 1 Wine quality 14 Commercial importance of grapes and wine 9 Health-related aspects ofwine consumption 15 Wine classification 11 Still table wines 11 References 17 Sparkling wines 13 Fortifiedwines (dessert and appetizer wines) 14 Suggested readings 20 Grapevine and wine origins anthocyanin, has been found in a container associated with what appears to be a grape press (Areshian et al., Winehasanarcheologicalrecorddatingbackatleast 2012). Although malvidin is relatively uncommon in 8 millennia. Residues consistent with wine (or at least otherfleshyfruit,itdoesoccurinpomegranates(Punica grapejuice)havebeenfoundintheSouthCaucasusdin granatum),indigenoustotheregion.Evidenceofdomes- pottery shards from Georgia, w6000e5000 BCE ticated grapevines (Ramishvili, 1988), grape remains (McGovern et al. (2017), and a clay pot from northern (Areshian et al., 2012), and residues in pottery Iran,w5400e5000BCE(Fig.1.1).Theresiduescontained throughout the region suggests that wine production crystals of calcium tartrate, typically found in grapes mayhavebeenwelldispersedthroughouttheCaucasus andwine.Tartaricacidisrarelyfoundinotherregional during the Neolithic period (P.E. McGovern, personal fruit,exceptinghawthorns.Bothsitesaresituatedalong communication). the southeastern rim of the natural habitats of wild Pyriform vessels appearing to contain wine residues grapevines. The relatively small, narrow-necked, have been found farther south (Godin Tepe, ceramic vessel from Iran also contained traces of tere- w3100e2900BCE).Fromthedistributionoftheresidues binth, a resin from Pistacia terebinthus. Resin was in the vessels, they appeared to have been laid on their commonly used as an inner coating to waterproof pot- side, possibly for storage (Badler, 1995). The vessels tery vessels (Serpico, 2000; Arobba et al., 2014). alsopossessedaninnerslipoffine,firedclay.Thiscould Amphorae so treated have been found in Egyptian have made them comparatively nonporous. They were tombs (Hayes, 1951; McGovern, 1997). Amphorae are a also apparently sealed with clay closures (Michel et al., later development in pottery production used for stor- 1993). age and transport. They were typically two-handled The earliest evidence of wine residues from the and elongated, and had a capacity of about 30L. Resin AegeancomesfromaNeolithicjarinDikiliTash(north- alsohadantimicrobialandflavorantproperties.During ern Greece), w2300 BCE (Garnier and Valamoti, 2016), Roman times, the resins commonly used to line and for the Mediterranean, pottery found in a cave in amphorae were derived from pine sap (e.g., Pinus hale- Sicily, w1500 BCE (Tanasi et al., 2017). pensis) (Columella in De Re Rustica, 12.20e14; Pliny in However,ifallthatisneededfor wine’s“discovery” HistoriaNaturalis, 14.25). is a human population in a region where grapes grow Another,possiblyindependent, sitefor wine’sorigin indigenously,thencurrentestimatesfor wine’sproduc- is in neighboring Armenia (Barnard et al., 2011). Evi- tion may be short by several thousand years. For dence for the presence of malvidin, the major grape example, the complex of buildings in southeastern WineScience,FifthEdition 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816118-0.00001-5 ©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 2 1. Introduction screes),opportunitiesforcollectingsignificantquantities ofwildgrapeswouldprobablyhavebeenlimited.Wine production, as normally defined, also demands some form of impervious, ideally sealable, container. Thus, any significant wine production probably postdates the development of agriculture and a settled lifestyle. Even accidental seed germination in rubbish piles would have taken several years before the vines pro- duced fruit. Admittedly, all this is speculative. Thus, the timing and events that ultimately led to wine, and its spread,willalways remainanenigma. Nonetheless,narrow-neckedpotteryvesselswerebe- ingproducedabout8000yearsago,andtheavailability ofwood-derivedresins(sealingthevessels)wouldhave made wine storage possible. The use of wineskins is FIGURE 1.1 anotheroption,butoneforwhichnoarchaeologicalev- Pottery vessel from which residues likely to be of idence remains. Wineskins, smeared with pitch, were Neolithic wine were found in Hajji Firuz, in the northern Zagros mountainsofIran. FromMcGovern,P.E.,Glusker,D.L.,Exner,L.J.,Voigt, used by the peasantry to store wine in Spain in the M.M.,1996.Neolithicresinatedwine.Nature381,480e481,bypermission 1800s (Henderson, 1824, p. 188), possibly reflecting a ofNature/Springer. technique millenniaold. Thepresenceofcarbonatedgrape-seedremainsfrom Turkey (Go¨bekli Tepe), w9000 BCE (Schmidt, 2010), 3rd-and4th-centuryBCJordansuggeststhatviticulture, must have required a large labor force. The buildings and possibly winemaking, had already spread beyond appear to have been constructed by a hunteregatherer the indigenous range of wild grapevines. This suggests society (predating agricultureor pottery production). If purposeful cultivation (McGovern et al., 1997; Zohary wine were produced by this society, it presumably was and Hopf, 2000). in limited quantities and consumed shortly after However, the first unequivocal evidence of inten- production. tional winemaking appears in representations of wine Older examples of fermented beverages have been presses from the reign of Udimu (Egypt), w3000 BCE discovered (McGovern et al., 2004), but they appear to (Petrie, 1923). Wine residues have also been found in have been produced from a mixture of rice, honey, and amphorae, specifically so marked, in many ancient variousfruits(hawthornand/orgrape).Suchbeverages Egyptian tombs. The earliest dates from the reign of were being produced in China as early as 7000 BCE. King Semerkhet (2920e2770 BCE) (Guasch-Jane´ et al., Although China is home to several Vitis spp., most of 2004). Amphorae marked as containing white and red itsalcoholicbeverageshavehistoricallybeenricebased wine were discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb (Poo, 1999). (1325 BCE) (Lesko, 1977). Confirmation of origin has As noted, the presence of calcium tartrate crystals is been established by the presence of syringic acid, an usually considered indicative of wine residues. Addi- alkaline breakdown product of malvidin-3-glucoside. tionalpotential(butnotexclusive)indicatorsaretannin The same technique has been used to establish the red residues(Garnieretal.,2003),ergosterol(produceddur- grape origin of an ancient Egyptian drink, shedeh ing yeast fermentation) (Isaksson et al., 2010), waxes (Guasch-Jane´ et al., 2006). It was a filtered, heated (from grape skins) (Isaksson, 2005), and Vitis pollen wine(Tallet,1995).ForadditionaldetailsaboutEgyptian (Arobbaetal.,2014).Amorespecific(butrare)indicator wine jars, and their sealing, see Lesko (1977), Hope of the past presence of wine (or grapes) would be the (1978), and McGovern et al. (1997). However, the effec- isolationof grape DNA (Milanesi et al., 2011). tivenessofreeds,coveredwithaclaytop,inpreserving Other than problems associated with differentiating wine against spoilage seems doubtful (Fig. 8.45). The between dried grape and wine residues, there is the amphorae are fascinating, though, in their possessing thorny issue of what actually constitutes wine. Does notationsonthewine’sorigin,thevintage,thevineyard, spontaneously fermented grape juice qualify as wine, and occasionally the winemaker (McGovern, 1997). or should the term be restricted to juice fermented and EquivalentindicationsoforiginhavebeenfoundonRo- stored in a manner capable of retaining its winelike manamphoraeinPompeii,occasionallyincludingindi- properties? The latter would suggest purposeful intent, cations of the owner (Jashemski, 1975). Although DNA ratherthan a fortuitous happenstance. analysis of amphora contents has begun (Milanesi Because of low yield, seasonal availability, and mar- etal.,2011;Foleyetal.,2012),ithasyettobeusedtosug- ginal availability (vines growing up trees or straddling gest varietal origin.