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Ting The Institution of Engineering andTechnology PublishedbyTheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnology,London,UnitedKingdom TheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnologyisregisteredasaCharityinEngland& Wales(no.211014)andScotland(no.SC038698). †TheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnology2018 Firstpublished2018 ThispublicationiscopyrightundertheBerneConventionandtheUniversalCopyright Convention.Allrightsreserved.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposesofresearch orprivatestudy,orcriticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,Designsand PatentsAct1988,thispublicationmaybereproduced,storedortransmitted,inany formorbyanymeans,onlywiththepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublishers,orin thecaseofreprographicreproductioninaccordancewiththetermsoflicencesissued bytheCopyrightLicensingAgency.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethose termsshouldbesenttothepublisherattheundermentionedaddress: TheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnology MichaelFaradayHouse SixHillsWay,Stevenage Herts,SG12AY,UnitedKingdom www.theiet.org Whiletheauthorsandpublisherbelievethattheinformationandguidancegiveninthis workarecorrect,allpartiesmustrelyupontheirownskillandjudgementwhenmaking useofthem.Neithertheauthorsnorpublisherassumesanyliabilitytoanyoneforany lossordamagecausedbyanyerrororomissioninthework,whethersuchanerroror omissionistheresultofnegligenceoranyothercause.Anyandallsuchliabilityis disclaimed. Themoralrightsoftheauthorstobeidentifiedasauthorsofthisworkhavebeen assertedbytheminaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisproductisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN978-1-78561-544-3(hardback) ISBN978-1-78561-545-0(PDF) TypesetinIndiabyMPSLimited PrintedintheUKbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon Contents 1 Introduction 1 Rupp Carriveau and David S-K. Ting References 4 2 Data-driven methodsfor predictionof small-to-medium windturbinesperformance 5 Majid Morshedizadeh, Rupp CarriveauandDavid S-K.Ting Abstract 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 SCADAdata treatment 7 2.2.1 Mean or median value 8 2.2.2 K-Nearest neighbour 8 2.2.3 Expectation–maximisation 8 2.2.4 Decision tree 9 2.3 Feature selection 10 2.3.1 Correlation coefficients 10 2.3.2 Principal component analysis 11 2.4 Modelling designnetworks 13 2.4.1 Multi-layer perceptron 14 2.4.2 Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system 15 2.4.3 Static and dynamic networks 17 2.4.4 Fusion 17 2.4.5 Estimation and prediction 18 2.4.6 Performance evaluation 19 2.5 Acase study 19 2.5.1 Data pre-processing 19 2.5.2 Monitoring networks 22 2.6 Conclusion 23 References 24 3 Optimization of windfarms for communities 27 AhmadrezaVasel-Be-Hagh Abstract 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Objective functions and optimization variables 29 vi Wind and solarbased energy systemsfor communities 3.2.1 Objective functions 30 3.2.2 Optimization variables 32 3.3 Wake-lossmodels 34 3.3.1 Large eddy simulations 34 3.3.2 Nonlinear Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS)models 37 3.3.3 Stochastic models 38 3.3.4 LinearizedRANSmodels 38 3.3.5 Empirical wake models 40 3.3.6 Kinematic (analytical) models 40 3.4 Search algorithms 45 3.5 Practice yourknowledge 48 3.5.1 Case I: Shape of the wind farm 48 3.5.2 Case II: Wake of wind turbines 48 3.5.3 Case III: Wind speed deficit inwind farms 48 3.5.4 Case IV: Yaw angle of wind turbines 49 3.5.5 Case V: Variation of power productionwith wind direction 49 3.5.6 Case VI: Surface roughness 50 3.5.7 Case VII: Inner turbines versusouter turbines 50 3.5.8 Case VIII: Wind farm noise production 50 3.5.9 Case IX: Hubheight optimization 52 3.5.10 Case X: Fatigue loads 53 3.5.11 Case XI: Turbine type 53 3.5.12 Case XII: Atmospheric stability 54 3.5.13 Case XIII: Wind farms and hurricanes 54 References 54 4 Financing for community windandsolar project development 63 Lindsay Miller andRupp Carriveau Abstract 63 4.1 Introduction 64 4.1.1 Community wind and solar –defined 66 4.2 Benefits of community wind and solar 67 4.3 Lessonsfrom overseas 68 4.4 Overview of available incentives and credits in North America 70 4.5 Historical financing models 71 4.5.1 Municipal wind 71 4.5.2 Cooperatives (wind and solar) 72 4.5.3 Private placements(wind and solar) 72 4.5.4 Private equity (wind and solar) 72 4.5.5 Multiple local owner (wind and solar) 72 4.5.6 Flip structures (wind) 73 4.5.7 On-site projects, behind the meter (wind and solar) 73 Contents vii 4.5.8 Utility-sponsored model (wind and solar) 73 4.5.9 Special-purposeentity (wind and solar) 74 4.5.10 Non-profit model (solar) 74 4.6 Innovative financing models –case studies of community wind 74 4.6.1 Cases from the United States 74 4.6.2 Cases from Canada 78 4.6.3 Discussion on replicability and challenges 80 4.7 Innovative financing models –case studies of community solar 81 4.7.1 Cases from the United States 82 4.7.2 Cases from Canada 85 4.7.3 Discussion on replicability and challenges 86 4.8 Summary and conclusions 87 References 91 5 Community-level solar thermal systems 95 Vishal Bhalla, Vikrant Khullar andHimanshuTyagi Abstract 95 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Solar energy 97 5.3 Flat-plate collector 99 5.3.1 Constructionand operation of a flat-plate collector 99 5.3.2 Design and operational parameters 101 5.4 Community-level volumetric absorption-based solar collectors (using nanofluids) 104 5.4.1 Numerical model of the volumetric absorption-based solar collector 104 5.4.2 Parameters influencing the performance of the solar collector 107 5.5 Summary 115 References 115 6 Solar–water desalination for small communities 119 FahadAmeen, Jacqueline A. Stagner and David S-K. Ting Abstract 119 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Types of solar–water desalination 122 6.2.1 Direct solar–water desalination systems 122 6.3 Mathematical modeling of an inclined solar still 126 6.3.1 Convective heat transfer 128 6.3.2 Radiative heat transfer 128 6.3.3 Evaporative heat transfer 129 6.3.4 Annual cost of water production 130 viii Wind and solarbased energy systemsfor communities 6.4 Community to study 131 6.5 Future outlook of renewable energy in Pakistan 134 6.5.1 Energy security 134 6.5.2 Economic benefits 134 6.5.3 Social equity 135 6.5.4 Environmental protection 135 6.5.5 Future development of renewable energy 135 6.6 Conclusion 136 Acknowledgment 137 References 137 7 Communitysolar PV projects 139 Avinash Singh, Paul Henshaw andDavidS-K.Ting Abstract 139 7.1 Introduction 140 7.1.1 What is a community solar PVproject? 140 7.1.2 Rationale of community solar PVprojects 140 7.1.3 Variationsin community solar PVprojects 142 7.2 Community solar PVmodels 143 7.2.1 Grid/utility sponsored community solar PVprojects 143 7.2.2 Special purpose entity (SPE)sponsoredcommunity solar PV 145 7.2.3 Nonprofit sponsoredcommunity solar PV 146 7.2.4 Comparison of the community solar PVproject models 147 7.3 Community solar PVprojects implementation barriers 148 7.3.1 High acquisition and installation cost 148 7.3.2 Space 148 7.3.3 Investors 149 7.3.4 Nogrid connection 149 7.3.5 Lack of government policies 149 7.3.6 Lack of government incentives 149 7.3.7 Complexityissues 149 7.3.8 Customer inertia 150 7.4 Selected examples of existing/future community solar PVprojects 150 7.4.1 Ontario, Canada 150 7.4.2 California, United States of America 151 7.4.3 Guyana, South America 153 7.4.4 Germany, Europe 153 7.4.5 Rwanda, East Africa 154 7.5 Summary 155 7.6 Recommendations 156 7.6.1 Policies and regulations 156 7.6.2 Start-up capacity 157 7.6.3 Funding 157 Contents ix 7.7 Conclusion 157 Abbreviations 158 References 159 Further reading 162 8 Assessingwindloadsfor urbanphotovoltaic installations 163 David Kazmirowicz, Jesse Bridges, Jonathan Whale and David Wood Abstract 163 8.1 Introduction 163 8.2 Wind loadingof PVinstallationsusing Australian Standard 1170.2 165 8.2.1 PVwind loading 167 8.3 The urban wind environment 169 8.4 Australian mounting system design practices 169 8.5 Wind tunnel test methods 171 8.5.1 Flat roof experiments 172 8.5.2 Sloped roof experiments 176 8.6 CFDsimulations 177 8.7 Discussion and analysis 179 8.8 Conclusions 181 Acknowledgements 182 References 182 9 Design optimization of multi-energy hubsfor community energy projects 187 AzadehMaroufmashat, Sean B. Walker,Ushnik Mukherjee, Michael Fowler, Ali Elkamel andSourenaSattari Abstract 187 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Methodology 189 9.3 Illustrative case study 190 9.4 Results and discussion 193 9.5 Conclusions 196 References 197 10 Battery-based storage for communities 199 BoyuanZhu,Junwei Lu,Wayne Water, Markos Katsanevakis, Mojtaba Moghimi, Domagoj Leskarac and Sascha Stegen Abstract 199 10.1 Introduction 199 10.2 Technologyof battery storage 204 10.2.1 Conventional and advancedlead-acid batteries 205 10.2.2 Lithium-ion batteries 206