West Greenlandic This grammar provides a clear and comprehensive overview of contemporary West Greenlandic. It follows a systematic order of topics beginning with the alphabet and phonology, continuing with nominal and verbal morphology and syntax, and concluding with more advanced topics such as complex sentences and word formation. Grammatical points are illustrated with authentic examples reflecting current life in Greenland. Grammatical terminology is explained fully for the benefit of readers without a background in linguistics. Features include: • Full grammatical breakdowns of all examples for ease of identifying individual components of complex words. • A detailed contents list and index for easy access to information. • An alphabetical list of the most commonly used West Greenlandic suffixes. • A glossary of grammatical abbreviations used in the volume. The book is suitable for a wide range of users, including independent and classroom-based learners of West Greenlandic, as well as linguists and anyone with an interest in Greenland’s official language. Lily Kahn is Professor of Hebrew and Jewish Languages at University College London (UCL). Her research areas include endangered and minority languages, as well as translation studies. She is co-editor with Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi of two UCL Press book series, Grammars of World and Minority Languages and Textbooks of World and Minority Languages. Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi is Associate Professor of Finnish and Minority Languages at UCL and Senior Lecturer in Finnish and Finno-Ugric Languages at Uppsala University, Sweden. Her research interests include endangered and minority languages, language pedagogy, and song lyrics. Relevant publications include Finnish Tutor (2017) and North Sámi: An Essential Grammar (with Lily Kahn; Routledge, 2017). Routledge Essential Grammars Essential Grammars describe clearly and succinctly the core rules of each language and are up-to-date and practical reference guides to the most important aspects of languages used by contemporary native speakers. They are designed for elementary to intermediate learners and present an accessible description of the language, focusing on the real patterns of use today. Essential Grammars are a reference source for the learner and user of the language, irrespective of level, setting out the complexities of the language in short, readable sections that are clear and free from jargon. Essential Grammars are ideal either for independent study or for students in schools, colleges, universities and adult classes of all types. Essential Grammars are available for the following languages: Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian Catalan Chinese Czech Danish Dutch English Finnish German Greek Hindi Hungarian Korean Latvian Modern Hebrew North Sámi Norwegian Polish Portuguese Romanian Serbian Spanish Swedish Thai Turkish Urdu Vietnamese West Greenlandic For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Routledge-Essential-Grammars/book-series/SE0549 West Greenlandic An Essential Grammar Lily Kahn and Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi First published 2022 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 Lily Kahn and Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi The right of Lily Kahn and Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Kahn, Lily, author. | Valijärvi, Riitta-Liisa, author. Title: West Greenlandic : an essential grammar / Lily Kahn and Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Series: Routledge essential grammars | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021014501 (print) | LCCN 2021014502 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138063693 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138063709 (paperback) | ISBN 9781315160863 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Kalâtdlisut dialect—Grammar. Classification: LCC PM62 .K26 2022 (print) | LCC PM62 (ebook) | DDC 497/.12—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014501 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014502 ISBN: 978-1-138-06369-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-06370-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-16086-3 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781315160863 Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC Ataatama inuunermik tunivaanga Ataatama oqaatsikka pinngortippai Ataatama Henrik Motzfeldtip eqqaaneqarnera ataqqinartuuli My father gave me my life My father gave me my language Honoured be my father Henrik Motzfeldt’s memory —Naja Motzfeldt This book is dedicated to the loving memory of Henrik Motzfeldt. —Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi and Lily Kahn Contents Acknowledgements xii List of abbreviations xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Greenlandic within the Eskimo-Aleut language family 1 1.2 Greenlandic language varieties 3 1.3 Historical and sociolinguistic introduction to West Greenlandic 4 1.3.1 Early history of Greenlandic 4 1.3.2 History of written West Greenlandic 4 1.3.3 Contemporary West Greenlandic 5 1.3.4 Aspects of Greenlandic culture 8 1.4 Characteristic features of West Greenlandic 9 1.5 How to use this grammar 12 1.5.1 Overall approach 12 1.5.2 Dictionary forms of words 12 1.5.3 Additive and truncative suffixes 12 1.5.4 Examples of grammatical points 13 1.5.5 Glossing 13 Chapter 2 Phonology and orthography 17 2.1 The alphabet 17 2.2 Vowels 17 2.3 Consonants 19 2.4 Syllables, stress, and intonation 22 2.5 Morphophonological variation 23 2.5.1 Consonant changes 23 2.5.2 Vowel changes 25 vii Contents 2.5.3 Helping vowel -i- 26 2.5.4 Loss of glides (j and v) 27 2.5.5 Stem types 27 2.5.6 Sound alternation in the beginning of suffixes 28 2.6 Kleinschmidt’s orthography 30 Chapter 3 Nouns 31 3.1 Case and number 31 3.2 Noun stem types 32 3.2.1 Weak stems 33 3.2.2 Weak stems with gemination 34 3.2.3 Additional weak-stem patterns 36 3.2.4 Weak t-stems 38 3.2.5 Strong stems 40 3.2.6 Extra-strong q-stems: word-final q > r 40 3.2.7 Strong q-stems: word-final -q disappears or becomes -r 41 3.2.8 Strong stems in -aq > -ap and -at 41 3.2.9 Strong stems with nasalisation 42 3.2.10 Strong stems with metathesis 43 3.2.11 Strong k-stems 46 3.2.12 Strong k-stems with extra -a-in the grammatical cases 47 3.3 Function of cases 48 3.3.1 Absolutive 48 3.3.2 Relative 49 3.3.3 Allative 50 3.3.4 Locative 51 3.3.5 Ablative 52 3.3.6 Instrumental 54 3.3.7 Prolative 60 3.3.8 Equative 63 3.4 Possessive inflection 64 3.4.1 Possessive absolutive 64 3.4.2 Possessive relative 68 3.4.3 Possessive allative 71 3.4.4 Possessive locative 73 3.4.5 Possessive ablative 76 3.4.6 Possessive instrumental 78 viii 3.4.7 Possessive prolative 81 3.4.8 Possessive equative 83 3.5 Collective suffixes 85 Chapter 4 Pronouns 87 Contents 4.1 Personal 87 4.2 Demonstrative 90 4.3 Interrogative 93 4.4 Reflexive 96 4.5 Reciprocal 98 4.6 Other 100 Chapter 5 Numerals 105 5.1 Cardinal 105 5.2 Ordinal 114 Chapter 6 Noun modification (= adjectives) 119 6.1 Attributive modifiers 119 6.2 Predicative modifiers 129 6.3 Comparison 132 6.3.1 Comparative 132 6.3.2 Superlative 135 Chapter 7 Verbs 142 7.1 Person and number 142 7.1.1 Subject suffixes 142 7.1.2 Object suffixes 143 7.2 Mood 144 7.2.1 Independent/main moods 145 7.2.2 Subordinate moods 165 7.3 Tense 190 7.3.1 Present tense 190 7.3.2 Past tense 191 7.3.3 Future tense 195 7.4 Aspect 201 7.4.1 Completed 201 7.4.2 Habitua l 201 7.4.3 Inchoative 204 7.5 Modality 205 7.6 Evidentiality 207 7.7 Causativity 210 ix 7.8 Reflexivity and reciprocity 213