HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Volume 4 Water Resources and Natural Control Processes HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Volume 1: Air and Noise Pollution Control Volume 2: Solid Waste Processing and Resource Recovery Volume 3: Biological Treatment Processes Volume 4: Water Resources and Natural Control Processes Volume 5: Physicochemical Technologies for Water and Wastewater Treatment HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Volume 4 Water Resources and Natural Control Processes Edited by Lawrence K. Wang Lenox Institute for Research Inc. Lenox, Massachusetts and Norman C. Pereira Monsanto Company St. Louis, Missouri The HUMANA Press' Clifton, New Jersey Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data Water resources and natural control processes. (Handbook of enviromental engineering; v. 4) includes bibliographies and index. 1. Water quality management--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Water, Underground--Management--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Waste disposal in the ground- Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Wang, Lawrence K. II. Pereira, Norman C. Ill. Series. TD170.H37 vol. 4 [TD365] 628 s 86-18632 ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9177-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-4822-4 DOl: 1O .l 007/978-1-4612-4822-4 © 1986 The HUMANA Press Inc .. Crescent Manor' P.O. Box 2148 . Clifton, Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition NJ 07015 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher. Preface The past few years have seen the emergence of a growing, widespread desire in this country, and indeed everywhere, that positive actions be taken to restore the quality of our environment, and to protect it from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution-air, noise, solid waste, and water. Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, if there is no waste, there can be no pollution, and the seemingly idealistic demand for "zero discharge" can be construed as a demand for zero waste. However, as long as there is waste, we can only attempt to abate the consequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. In those instances in which a particular type of pollution has been recognized, three major questions usually arise: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? The principal intention of this series of books on environmental engineering is to help the reader formu late useful answers to the second and third of these questions, i.e., to outline the best currently available engineering solutions, and to examine their costs in the light of the real level of benefits afforded. The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution problems has been a major factor contributing to the success of environmental engineering, and in large measure has ac counted for the establishment of a "methodology of pollution controL" However, realizing the already great complexity of current environmental problems, and understanding that, as time goes on, these issues will be come even more complex and interrelated, render it imperative that intel ligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequi site to such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available for environmental engineering. In this series of books, we are reviewing at a practical tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (proc esses, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or of potential utility, for such pollution abatement. We believe that the unification of v vi PREFACE the concepts and engineering methodology found in these books is a logi cal step in the evolution of environmental engineering. The treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principles and theory of chemistry, physics, and mathe matics. This emphasis on fundamental science is based on the recognition that engineering practice has of necessity in recent years become more firmly based on scientific principles, rather than depending so heavily on our empirical accumulation of facts, as was earlier the case. It was not intended, though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism. Since an engineer must understand science within a context of appli cations, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a partic ular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations, and detailed explanations of their applications to environmen tal quality control or improvement. Throughout, methods of practical de sign calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided. Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the trained engineer should more finnly understand fundamen tal principles, be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and origi nality in the definition and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer ought by conviction and practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress. Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has demanded an expertise that could only be provided through mUltiple authorship. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a particular subject area, and consequently it has been difficult to treat all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors' favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on briefly. In addition, treatment of some well established operations, such as distillation and solvent extraction, has been totally omitted. All of the authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of the interested reader. Each of the chapters is meant to be self-contained and conse- PREFACE vii quently some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In each case, all errors of omission or repetition are the responsibility of the editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible the authors have used the British System (fps), along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU), or vice versa. The authors sincerely hope that this inconsistency of units usage does not prove to be disruptive to the reader. The series has been organized in five volumes: I. Air and Noise Pollution Control II. Solid Waste Processing and Resource Recovery III. Biological and Natural Control Processes IV. Solids Separation and Treatment V. Physicochemical Technologies for Water and Wastewater Treatment As can be seen from the above titles, no consideration is given to pollution by type of industry, or to the abatement of specific pollutants. Rather, the above categorization has been based on the three basic forms in which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise pollution control is included in Volume 1. This Engineering Handbook is designed to serve as a basic text as well as a comprehensive reference book. We hope and expect it will prove of equal high value to advanced undergraduate or graduate stu dents, to designers of pollution abatement systems, and to research work ers. The editors welcome comments from readers. It is our hope that these volumes will not only provide information on the various pollution abate ment technologies, but will also serve as a basis for advanced study or specialized investigation of the theory and practice of the individual engi neering systems covered. The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and sup port received from their colleagues at the Environmental and Energy Sys tems Department of Cal span Corporation during the conceptual stages of this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having borne patiently our numerous queries and com ments. Finally, we are grateful to our respective families for their pa tience and understanding during some rather trying times. LA WRENCE K. WANG Lenox, Massachusetts NORMAN C. PEREIRA St. Louis, Missouri Contents Preface ........... ........................................ v Contributors ............................................. xvii CHAPTER 1 SURFACE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS I CLARK C. K. LIU I. Introduction.......... ... ......... .............. 1 II. Mathematical Simulation of the Surface Water System. 3 A. Water Quality Model Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 B. Transport and Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 C. Mathematical Model and Computer Application . . . 7 D. Modeling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 III. Oxygen Consumption and Replenishment in Receiving Waters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 A. Biochemical Decay of Carbonaceous Waste Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 B. Nitrification...................... .......... . 15 C. Photosynthesis and Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 D. Sediment Oxygen Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 E. Atmospheric Reaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 IV. Coliform Bacteria Die-Off. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 V. Modeling Application in Surface Water Quality. . . . . . . 24 A. River Analysis .............................. 24 B. Estuary Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 C. Lake Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 ix x CONTENTS Appendix A ........' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 CHAPTER 2 WATER QUALITY CONTROL OF TIDAL RIVERS AND ESTUARIES............... .......................... 61 Mu HAO SUNG WANG AND LAWRENCE K. WANG I. Introduction.................................... 61 II. Water Quality Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 A. Conservative Substances ...................... 62 B. Reactive Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 C. Sequentially Reactive Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 D. Surface Transfer Coefficient, Reaeration Coefficient, and Deoxygenation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 E. Assimilation Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 F. Estuarine Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 G. Dispersion Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 H. Advective Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 III. Basic Mathematical Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 IV . Working Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 A. Steady-State Equations for Waste Concentrations in Tidal Rivers and Estuaries Resulting from a Point Source of Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 B. Steady-State Equations for Waste Concentrations in Tidal Rivers and Estuaries Resulting from a Distributed Source of Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 C. Alternate Working Models and Systems Identification for Tidal Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 V. Practical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 CHAPTER 3 COOLING OF THERMAL DISCHARGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 WILLIAM W. SHUSTER I. Introduction.................................... 107 CONTENTS xi II. Cooling Ponds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 A. Mechanism of Heat Dissipation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 B. Design of Cooling Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 III. Cooling Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 A. Mechanism of Heat Dissipation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 B. Definitions.................................. 125 C. Types of Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 D. Problems Associated with Cooling Tower Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 E. Costs .................................... ·· 136 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 CHAPTER 4 CONTROL OF RESERVOIRS AND LAKES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 DONALD B. AULENBACH I. Introduction.................................... 139 II. Special Features of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 III. Hydrology..................................... 146 IV. Evaporation.................................... 157 V. Transpiration................................... 161 VI. Evapotranspiration............................... 161 VII. Infiltration and Percolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 VIII. Runoff........................................ 164 IX. Groundwater................................... 182 X. Impact of Pollution on Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 XI. Thermal Impacts on the Aquatic Environment . . . . . . . . 200 XII. Toxies in Water Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 XIII. Goals of Water Pollution Control .................. 210 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 CHAPTER 5 DEEP-WELL DISPOSAL.... ... .... ......... .... . ..... . 215 CHARLES W. SEVER I. Introduction........... ......................... 215 II. Basic Well Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 III. Evaluation of a Proposed Injection Well Site. . . . . . . . . 222