WAR CRIMES IN INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICTS Does international law make individuals responsible for perpetrating warcrimesduringinternalarmedconflicts? EveLaHayeexploresthecontentofinternationalcriminallawapplicable insuchconflictsandquestionsthe1995findingoftheAppealsChamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia that responsibility could be enforced on the basis of customary international law.Thisfindingisevaluatedwithregardtostatepracticeandthepracticeof internationalorganisations. The means to enforce individual criminal responsibility for such crimes are also investigated. The states on whose territory the crimes tookplacehavesometimestriedsuchperpetrators,butcanotherstates prosecute perpetrators of war crimes under the principle of universal jurisdiction? The applicability of universal jurisdiction to war crimes committedincivilwarsandthepracticeofdomesticcourtsareexam- ined,alongsidetheroleandachievementsofprosecutionscarriedoutby internationalcourtsandtribunals. EVELAHAYEisaformerAssociateLegalOfficeroftheAppealsChamber of the ICTY and is now Legal Advisor at the International Committee oftheRedCross,Geneva. WAR CRIMES IN INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICTS EVE LA HAYE CAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB28RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521860734 © Eve La Haye 2008 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-39502-4 eBook (NetLibrary) ISBN-13 978-0-521-86073-4 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Amesparents CONTENTS Acknowledgements xii Listofabbreviationsandacronyms xiv Introduction 1 1 Towardsaworkabledefinitionofinternalarmed conflicts 5 1 Establishmentofanarmedconflict 6 1.1 Definitionofarmedconflictsininternationaltreaties 7 1.2 Definitionofarmedconflictsininternationalcaselaw 9 2 Internationalandinternalarmedconflicts 13 2.1 Recognitionofbelligerency 14 2.2 Warsofself-determination 14 2.3 Foreigninterventionininternalarmedconflicts 15 2.4 UNinterventionininternalarmedconflicts 19 2 Thelawsofwarapplicableininternalarmed conflicts 32 1 Thelawsofwarapplicableininternalarmedconflictsbefore1949 33 1.1 Thelawsofwarandinternalarmedconflictspriortothe twentiethcentury 33 1.2 Thelawsofwarandinternalarmedconflictsatthe beginningofthetwentiethcentury 37 2 Treatylawapplicableininternalarmedconflictsafter1949 39 2.1 AdoptionandcontentofcommonArticle3ofthe1949 GenevaConventions 39 2.2 AdoptionandcontentofAdditionalProtocolIItothe 1949GenevaConventions 43 2.3 Otherrelevanttreaties 47 3 Customarylawsofwarapplicableininternalarmedconflicts inthetwenty-firstcentury 49 3.1 Introduction 49 vii viii CONTENTS 3.2 CommonArticle3andAdditionalProtocolIIascustomary internationallaw 51 3.3 Customaryinternationallawandtheparticularitiesofthe lawsofarmedconflicts 54 3.4 Theprotectionofciviliansfromtheeffectsofhostilities 57 3.4.1 Practiceofbelligerentsduringinternalarmedconflicts 58 3.4.2 Practiceofthirdstatesandinternational organisations 61 3.5 Themeansofwarfareprohibitedininternalarmedconflicts 67 3.5.1 Practiceofbelligerentsduringinternalarmedconflicts 68 3.5.2 Practiceofthirdstatesandinternationalorganisations 69 4 Conclusion 73 3 Theregimeofwarcrimes 104 1 Thecustomaryrighttotrybelligerentsforviolationsofthelaws ofwar:briefhistoricalsurvey 104 2 Thecurrentregimeofwarcrimescommittedininternational armedconflicts 107 3 Theextensionoftheconceptofwarcrimestointernalarmed conflicts:someconceptualissues 110 3.1 Nexusbetweenthecrimeandthearmedconflict 110 3.1.1 Thenexusinthecaselawoftheadhoctribunals 111 3.1.2 ThenexusinthestatuteoftheInternational CriminalCourt 112 3.2 Potentialperpetratorsofwarcrimes 115 3.3 Categoriesofvictimsofwarcrimes 117 3.4 Howcanrebelforcesbeboundbythelawsofwarin internalarmedconflicts? 119 3.5 Conclusion 121 4 Individualcriminalresponsibilityforwarcrimes committedininternalarmedconflicts 131 1 Internationaltreatiesandtheprincipleofindividualcriminal responsibilityforwarcrimescommittedininternalarmed conflicts 133 1.1 ThestatutesofthetwoadhocInternationalCriminal Tribunals 134 1.1.1 ThestatuteoftheInternationalCriminalTribunal fortheformerYugoslavia 134 1.1.2 ThestatuteoftheInternationalCriminalTribunalfor Rwanda 136 1.2 ThestatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt 138 CONTENTS ix 1.3 ThestatuteoftheSpecialCourtforSierraLeone 144 1.4 Othertreaties 147 2 Customaryinternationallawandtheprincipleofindividual criminalresponsibilityforwarcrimesininternal armedconflicts 148 2.1 Practiceofstates 150 2.1.1 Nationallegislation,criminalcodesandmilitary manuals 150 2.1.1.1 Nationallegislationimplementingthe1949Geneva Conventionsandthe1977Additional Protocols 151 2.1.1.2 Militarymanuals 154 2.1.1.3 NationallegislationimplementingSecurityCouncil resolutionsestablishingtheICTR andtheICTY 155 2.1.1.4 Nationallegislationimplementingthestatuteofan InternationalCriminalCourt 157 2.1.1.5 Conclusion 160 2.1.2 Declarationofstates 161 2.1.2.1 Unilateraldeclarationsofstatesduringdebatesinthe SecurityCouncil 161 2.1.2.2 DeclarationsofstatesduringtheRomediplomatic conferenceontheICC 162 2.1.3 Theadoptionofmultilateraltreatiesasevidenceofstate practice 165 2.2 Practiceofinternationalorganisations 166 2.2.1 UNSecurityCouncilresolutions 166 2.2.2 UNGeneralAssemblyresolutionsandSecretary-General reports 168 2.2.3 ThepracticeoftheEuropeanUnion 169 2.3 Conclusion 170 3 Tentativelistofwarcrimesininternalarmedconflicts 172 5 Nationalprosecutionsofwarcriminalsandinternal armedconflicts 216 1 Universaljurisdictionandwarcrimesininternationallaw 218 1.1 Universaljurisdictionoverwarcrimesininternationalarmed conflicts:historicalbackgroundandcontemporary applications 221 1.2 Titleofjurisdictionprovidedininternational treatiesforwarcrimescommittedininternalarmed conflicts 224