Edited by Klaus Benesch and François Specq Walking and the Aesthetics of Modernity Pedestrian Mobility in Literature and the Arts Walking and the Aesthetics of Modernity Klaus Benesch • F rançois Specq Editors Walking and the Aesthetics of Modernity Pedestrian Mobility in Literature and the Arts Editors Klaus Benesch François Specq Department of English and American Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon & Studies CNRS (IHRIM) LMU Munich Lyon , France Munich , G ermany ISBN 978-1-137-60282-4 ISBN 978-1-137-60364-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60364-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016952088 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2 016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub- lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration courtesy of the Bain Collection, Library of Congress Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York M ( ) W : A I ODERN S ALKING N NTRODUCTION If life is a journey through time and space, from early childhood to old age, and from our birthplace to the places where we seek employment, found families, or eventually retire to and pass away, much of that journey will be done on foot or, more precisely, by way of walking. Though rarely questioned as a form of universal movement, walking, as Balzac famously claimed, appears to be at the center of the human condition. An impor- tant cultural technique in its own right, walking allows us to interact with the environment in unique ways: through walking we acquire a sense of physical space and we learn how to measure distances, how to distinguish that which is far off from what is immediate and close by. Put another way, walking defi nes our experience of self and of the world. It also provides insight into the complex skein of human life itself. While walking, mathematician William Rowan Hamilton fi nally thought of a formula for the analysis of three-dimensional space, and Karl Marx, perambulating with his son-in-law, Paul Lafargue, through London’s Hampstead Heath Park, is said to have envisioned the entire economic system as outlined in the fi rst volume of D as Kapital . 1 Moreover, writ- ers, artists, and thinkers frequently embraced the slow motion of walking as a powerful tool to undo the limitations and self-alienation imposed by modern capitalist society. 2 And where resistance to rampant capitalism has become either impossible or futile, as in Cormac McCarthy’s post- apocalyptic novel T he Road (2007), it is through walking that characters retrace the journey of mankind from its early tattered existence in the woods to the more refi ned stages of human interaction and bonding. If human life, then, has always also been a journey on foot, the history of v vi MODERN(S) WALKING: AN INTRODUCTION that journey begins with man’s (or woman’s, for that matter) transforma- tion from a crawling to a walking animal. IN THE BEGINNING WAS THE FOOT The shift from quadrupedalism to an upright mode of movement, from crawling, jumping, or galloping to walking, has been a crucial moment in the history of human culture. “The diminution of the olfactory stimuli,” Freud argues in C ivilization and Its Discontents (1930), “seems itself to be a consequence of man’s raising himself from the ground, of his assump- tion of an upright gait; this made his genitals, which were previously con- cealed, visible and in need of protection, and so provided feelings of shame in him” (qtd. in Solnit). Since by walking around, the early upright men of central Africa, so-called H omo erectus , disclosed their reproductive organs, the ensuing feeling of shame and guilt, Freud seems to suggest, led to the veiling of the body and, eventually, to the establishing of social etiquette. It also led to a diminution of our sensual experience of the world, thereby instituting a rift between self and other, human and non-human. To have learned how to walk not only allowed early humans to extend their realm of action, from the rain forest to the savanna, but, man’s “raising from the ground” and its accompanying replacement of olfactory by mediated, that is, cultural experiences of the world, also marks the beginning of civiliza- tion itself. From now on, life has turned into a relentless journey; to be human is to be in motion : in order to “know” the world one has to leave home and hearth, and embark on an exploratory voyage to places else- where, unknown and far-off. Whether the upright gait has been the sole driving force of civiliza- tion and the production of culture is, of course, debatable. There is little doubt, however, that walking has always been more than merely a well- coordinated movement of body parts. As an expression of the human will to explore, interact with, and ultimately transcend the limits of the physi- cal environment, it has served as a motor of progress, a relentless force of change and transformation. A key moment in the shift from sedentary to mobile forms of life, walk- ing clearly resonates with the modern emphasis on a movement in space. Modern literature is replete with men (less frequently women) walking, with people in motion or in transition from country to city, from home to foreign land, from the well-known to the unknown, from departure to arrival. Quite frequently, its peripatetic characters are far from being MODERN(S) WALKING: AN INTRODUCTION vii goal-o riented, that is, they walk for the sake of walking, endlessly and excessively, in order to avoid being stationary, being fettered to place and time. Obsessive walkers abound in modern literature and so does the notion that walking somehow captures the experience of being modern, that it somehow provides insight into the underpinnings of modern life itself. WANDERLUST AND/IN MODERNITY Predicated on the human body and its fi nite power resources, the act of walking, however, always also involves a fundamental challenge inher- ent in modern existence, namely, the problem of how to negotiate, on the one hand, man’s extension into space and, on the other, her being rooted in a particular time and place. If the former evokes modernity’s mobile lifestyles, the latter relates to an inevitable human emplacement in the environment or, as Merleau-Ponty succinctly put it, to our being there . 3 Walking thus encapsulates a fundamental paradox of modern life: the need to conjoin forms of being in-motion with a being- there , a being anchored in a particular place and time. Wary of unwonted consequences of mobility and speed, moderns often posit walking as an alternative mode of movement, one that engages both body and soul and, thereby, sub- lates the tensions inherent in modern society. To comprehend the com- plex, shifting role of mobility we also have to register its absence, that is, the self-imposed lack or restraint of constant movement. As several of the chapters gathered in this volume emphasize, to n ot move or to slow down and walk, loiter, or ramble often coincides with anti-modern sentiments and an encompassing antipathy toward modernity at large (see, e.g., the contributions of Gross and Estes). To alleviate the tensions between mobility and immobility, space and place, progress and stasis, the act of walking takes on particular impor- tance. Signifi cantly, if also somewhat paradoxically, walking has often come to signify a counterspace, a mode of mobile existence that frees the mind from the limitations of history and tradition, thereby empower- ing the autonomous subject and providing moments of epiphanic insight. Unimpeded by technology and the regulations and laws it necessitates, the act of walking allows to pay close attention to particular places and regions. In so doing walking lends itself readily to notions of rootedness, thereby defying unfettered rapid progress and cultural change. 4 Moreover, as it slowly moves bodies through spaces, walking allows for an e ncompassing viii MODERN(S) WALKING: AN INTRODUCTION experience, and it enables the individual to resist the demands of family, society, civilization. While walking body and mind join to interact with the environment, and to provide a panoply of ways—intellectual, emotional, bodily—to “take in” and make sense of the world “out there.” From the late eighteenth to the twenty-fi rst century walking repeatedly fi gured as an alternative mode of human existence, one that is outside of the restrictions and limitations of modern life as we know it. “If you are prepared to leave father and mother, and brother and sister, and wife and child and friends, and never see them again,” Thoreau writes in his essay “Walking,” “if you have paid your debts, and made your will, and settled all your affairs, and are a free man, then you are ready for a walk” (“Walking” 186). If walking has the power to liberate, for walkers less receptive to the idea of freedom, Thoreau seems to suggest, who have not yet severed ties with society, have not yet freed themselves from the constraints of the marketplace and the dictates of social conventions, the benefi ts of walking will be limited. Yet those who do will benefi t greatly! To transcend the social and economic conditions modern writers, artists, and thinkers often embarked on a journey on foot, a journey by which they hoped to wed past and future, to acknowledge the rootedness of tra- dition while simultaneously exploring its limits and opening it up toward a malleable, uncertain future. The trajectory and routes of these modern walkers, their journeys through cities, into the wilderness, or across entire continents inform many—if not all—of the 20 essays collected in this volume. Whether they look at novelists, poets, painters, photographers, fi lmmakers, or simply at tourist walkers, all share an interest in moderns walking, and in the representation of their walks in the arts. In On Foot: A History of Walking Joseph Amato reminds us that “the act of walking on foot is joined to a time, condition, society, and culture” (2). To take note of who walks, to what gender, age, ethnicity, and class the walker belongs, to take into account what he or she is wearing while walking, and to gauge the landscapes and distances the walker traverses cannot but shed light on a society as a whole, its tensions, attitudes, and the cultural myths on which it is predicated. As mentioned above, this is particularly true for modern, technologically advanced societies where walking has ceased to be the obvious, primary means of movement. The walker who walks out of necessity, either for a lack of means or the absence of alternatives, is less prone to refl ect upon why she/he walks than, say, the modern fl âneur who, when roaming the city, embarks on a contemplative journey that provides revelatory experiences regarding self and society. MODERN(S) WALKING: AN INTRODUCTION ix Though walking always draws attention to the walker, the contribu- tors to this volume are particularly interested in those instances where walking has also become topical, an “objet d’art,” or the subject of study, of critical refl ection and representation. “Isn’t it curious,” Balzac famously writes in his Theory of Walking (1833), “that ever since man has walked, no one has asked why he walks, or how, or if he could improve his walking, or what he does when he walks, whether one could not impose his walking, change or scrutinize it—issues that are integral to all the philosophical, psychological or political systems that have occupied the world?” 5 It is the interface of walking and modern philosophical, psy- chological, and political systems, of how we experience and make sense of both our individual lives and the world at large that is the focus of the essays collected here. MODERN(S) WALKING: WHO, WHERE, AND WHY? While the notion of walking has been explored by a number of authors over the last three decades, the focus of this book is different, both in its scope and in its approach. The existing scholarship fundamentally falls into three types of approaches. Literary studies of walking, which initiated the scholarly interest in this theme in the 1990s, have mainly focused on a poetics of writing as part of a “Romantic tradition,” from Wordsworth to the twentieth century (see especially Robinson, Jarvis, Gilbert). Cultural studies of walking rose to prominence in the 2000s, through books with a broader focus on the history and imagination of the act of walking (see especially Solnit, Amato, Nicholson, Gros). Nurturing both, infl uential essays by Walter Benjamin, Jacques Derrida, and Michel de Certeau have considered the topic from a more theoreti- cal or philosophical perspective. Even as it refers to those classic studies of walking, this volume has different emphases. As a collection of essays, it covers a wider array of authors and topics than more specialized studies, ranging as it does from eighteenth-century fi ction writers and travelers to contemporary fi lm, digital art, and artists’ books. And it is concerned with a closer examina- tion of texts and visual art than books with a broad historical, cultural, or theoretical orientation. The chapters gathered in section I focus on the different ways space is perceived, constructed, and made meaningful through the act of walking. Whether in eighteenth-century narratives, nineteenth-century visions of