Hermann Hermann Kreutzmann The wakhan quadrangle became an arena of colonial Kreutzmann competition and international interest when four powers – afghanistan, China, great Britain and russia – struggled for dominance in a remote mountain region where only scat- waKHan quadrangle tered communities lived in a challenging environment. at the end of the ‘great game’ international boundaries were agreed upon and established on the ground. Prior to this, half a century of exploration and reconnaissance had aug- mented and enhanced the ethnographical, geographical and exploration and espionage during and after the great game linguistic knowledge about the people living there by send- e e ing various international travellers commissioned to record m l a routes, military details and strategic information for the re- g g spective parties in the contest. among the diverse explorers t n rea were so-called indigenous intermediaries who were trained g in measuring geodetic parameters and who noted down a e their observations about the customs, culture and economy h r r t of the people. They were expected to be knowledgeable in e t terms of linguistic skills and cultural practices; they were f d d a less likely than their colonial masters to arouse suspicion. n Munshi abdul rahim was an explorer who was sent to a a g wakhan and Badakhshan in 1879-1880 by the first British n u ri Political agent in gilgit, John Biddulph. Hard to find and u d long-disregarded, his report is the centrepiece of this book q ge and is reprinted in facsimile. This authentic and informative a n report was written during a crucial period for wakhan that n o i resulted in the imperial division of the formerly independent p a es principality into two parts and the flight and migration of a d large share of its inhabitants to neighbouring countries. His n H a account is preceded by an introduction to the great game n K o and its implications for the Central asian interface and i t a especially Badakhshan and the Pamirs, an elaboration of the a or context in which exploration and reconnaissance took place, l p w x and a presentation of the actors from the perspective of e ‘native explorers’. Munshi abdul rahim’s narrative is a case in point to discuss the function of providers of ‘political’ and ‘non-political’ information, i.e. the distinction between exploration and espionage from colonial times to the present day. The comments and interpretations are embedded in archival research and fieldwork in the region; within a span of 40 years, the author has retraced all the steps of Munshi abdul rahim. Harrassowitz Harrassowitz Verlag Hermann Kreutzmann MAR_Schutzumschlag_Fin.indd 1 12.02.2017 16:20:29 Hermann Kreutzmann waKHan quadrangle ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 Hermann Kreutzmann waKHan quadrangle exploration and espionage during and after the great game 2017 Harrassowitz Verlag · wiesbaden ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 DedicatedtoSabineFelmyandallourcompanionsandfriends enroutetothePamiriancrossroads BibliografischeInformationderdeutschenBibliothek: diedeutscheBibliothekverzeichnetdiesePublikation inderdeutschennationalbibliografie; detailliertebibliografischedatensindimInternetüberhttp://dnb.ddb.deabrufbar. BibliographicinformationpublishedbydiedeutscheBibliothek: diedeutscheBibliothekliststhispublicationin thedeutschenationalbibliografie;detailedbibliographicdataisavailableinthe Internetathttp://dnb.ddb.de Forfurtherinformationaboutourpublishingprogrampleaseconsultour websitehttp//:www.harrassowitz.de/verlag ©forthiseditionOttoHarrassowitzgmbH&Co.Kg,wiesbaden2017 Thiswork,includingallofitsparts,isprotectedbycopyright. anyusebeyondthelimitsofcopyrightlawwithoutthepermission ofthepublisherisforbiddenandsubjecttopenalty.Thisapplies particularlytoreproductions,translations,microfilmsandstorage andprocessinginelectronicsystems. Coverillustration:Thomasedwardgordon1876 Backcover:MapofthesurveymadebytheMirzain1868–69 editors:anneBeckandSabineFelmy Photography:HermannKreutzmannexceptwherededicatedotherwise designandtypography:HermannKreutzmannandHaraldweller desktoppublishingandimageprocessing:Haraldweller Cartography:BerndHilbererandMarkusHauser Printingandbinding:MemmingerMedienCentrumag,Memmingen Printedonpermanent/durablepaper. Printedingermany·ISBn978-3-447-10812-6 e-ISBN PDF978-3-447-19637-6 ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 5 Contents avant-propos 7 –Marriageceremonies 102 –Ondeath 103 Traveloguesfromforgottenvisitors 7 –education 103 Introducingactorsandinterests 9 –Builtenvironment 104 narrowingdownthecontext– –administrativedivision 104 Munshiabdulrahim’smission 10 –agriculture 106 –Contentsandcomments 11 –animalhusbandry 109 –Theimmediateaftermathandlong-lasting –authorityandrule 109 effects 11 –wakhanwithinBadakhshan 111 Transliterationandtranscription 12 –Ishkashim 113 Copyright 15 –Zebak 113 –warduj 115 Introduction 17 –Faizabad 116 Fromriversourcetogeopoliticalpivot– –Ontheholymantle 117 ThegreatgameontheOxus 17 –Saleofslaves 118 dominanceandrestructuring–40yearsthatshaped –ManufacturesofBadakhshan 118 Centralasia 20 –Mineralwealthandotherproduce 118 Menontheground–ananglo-russiancontest 31 –IndiangoodsinBadakhshan 119 gamblinginthegreatgame–amulti-tier –russiangoodsinBadakhshan 119 playground 35 –Bokharangoods 120 Intellectualsupportduringthegreatgame 39 –goodsfromqataghanandKunduz 120 endgameinthewakhanquadrangle 43 –ProductsfromChitral 121 –artisansandcraftsmenfromFaizabad 121 Missionswithanaim 57 –Khamchán,theancientcapital 122 FromKashgartowakhan 57 –OnthetribesofBadakshán 122 Colonialmastersdependingonindigenous –ThetribeofHazáras 122 intermediaries–collaborationinmap-making –Onreligion 122 andreconnaissance 63 –Onlearning 122 Muslimtrackersintrans-frontierCentralasia 65 –Onhouse-building 122 a‘skeletonmap’ 68 –Onhabitsofhospitality 123 JohnBiddulph–commandingofficerand –HabitsoftheinhabitantsofBadakhshan 123 mastermind 75 –Ongivingandtakinggirlsinmarriage 124 MukhtarShahandMunshiabdulrahim– –Prideofraceofthetribes 124 twotravellersontheirwaytoBadakhshan 83 –Onclothing 124 Munshiabdulrahim’sjourneyrevisited–from –Clothingofwomen 124 colonialignorancetopresent-dayreception 89 –appearanceandheightofmen 124 Munshiabdulrahim’svisitatacrucialtime –Onthemen’slabour 124 forwakhanandBadakhshan 99 –Onthewomen’slabour 125 Topicscoveredandhighlightedin –SicknessinBadakhshan 125 Munshiabdulrahim’sreport 101 –Oncattle-rearingandwealth 125 –religion 102 –numbersofpopulation 125 –Ceremoniesonthebirthofason 102 –OntheclimateofBadakhshan 126 ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 6 Contents –TableofdescentoftheMirsofBadakhshan 128 Thefateandfutureofthep€r 202 –detailedaccountofthesonsoftheMirsof routesacrosstheHindukush,Pamirs,Karakoram Badakhshan 128 andHimalaya 205 –relationshipandkinsmanshipofthe Thewakhanquadrangleintransition–linksbetween MirsofBadakhshan 128 afghanistan,BritishIndiaandKashgaria 207 –PlaceofflightorrefugeoftheMirsof Chitral-wakhanroute–nexuswithtradefrom Badakhshan 129 Badakhshan 208 –dependenceoftheMirofShughnanon Separateinfrastructures–roadstodevelopment 213 Badakhshan 131 ContemporarylifeinBadakhshan 219 –HistoryofBadakhshan 132 Faizabad–theurbancentre 221 –ancientrevenueatthetimeoftheChughtaiKings adaptationinnewabodes–mobility,migrationand andothers 132 integration 227 –TheexpenditureoftheMironhishouseand rajonIshkashim 227 army 132 Sarikol 231 –HabitsoftheMir 132 gojal 233 –Peopleofrank 132 Cross-boundarycommunicationandexchange 236 –Onthetreatmentofguestsandvakils Strategicimportancetoday 238 bytheMir 133 –accountoftwoorthreegenerationsofthe Postscript 243 Mirsofqataghan 133 Thefateofindigenousintermediaries 243 –routedescriptions 135 explorationandintelligencecollectioninthe –generalremarksontheYarkhunValley 142 wakhanquadrangle–yesterdayandtoday 247 Commentonthenarrative 143 anthropological,botanicalandgeographical exploration 253 JourneytoBadakshan withreporttoBadakshanandwakhan glossary 259 byMunshiabdulrahim 151 Pronunciation 265 Sequel 191 Bibliography 266 wakhananditsheritageinmulti-localsituations 191 archivalcollections 266 exodusofMiraliMardanShah 193 Publishedsources 268 Optionsforreturningtowakhan 195 Mapbibliography 276 wakhandivided–peopleonthemove 197 CommunitydivisionalongthePanj 199 Index 279 ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 7 FromtheoasisofBaharaksuppliesare broughttotheherdersonShewaPa- mir.ThetwomenhavereachedSar-e BomDarra(3,200m);theHindukush mountainrangeisvisibleintheback- ground.Thephotographwastakenon 16July2009 avant-propos pearedasareasofambiguity,aslosthorizons,andasplaces ofmystery.Justtomentiononeexample:untilasystematic Traveloguesfromforgottenvisitors ground-checkmaterialised,thenotionprevailedofahidden kingdom and a fabulous mountain system by the name of Over centuries travellers have been the main producers of Bolor.Toproceedfurtherintounknownterritoriesmotivat- spatialknowledgeaboutnewdestinations;especiallyinare- ed enterprising travellers in their search for lost places and as where their numbers were only few, some have reached ‘blankspots’.ThePamiriancrossroadsappearedtobesuch thestatusofhighlyrespectedpioneerswithoutanycompet- hostile areas where physical challenges, poor infrastruc- itorsofequalstanding.Certainnameshaverepresentedthe ture and political insecurity met.1 The Bolor mystery was canon of geographical knowledge. For a long time Central never solved and vanished completely when the territories asia has functioned as an interface between densely popu- where Bolor had supposedly been hidden became known. latedareassuchasChina,India,Persiaandeurope;there- whenCarlZimmermanncompiledhismapofInnerasiain motedeserts,mountainsandsteppeshadtobecrossedinor- 1841,itappearedtosumuptheconventionalknowledgeof dertoconnectfertileoases,pulsatingcitiesandnetworksof learned circles of its time. The map was produced to illus- roads.archaeologicalandgeographicalexpeditionsfocused trateCarlritter’smonumentalworkongeography,inpar- on retracing the flow of innovations and inventions and ticular volume three, in which the transition from eastern trackingthedisseminationofmaterialgoodsandknowledge to western asia was discussed.2 Carl ritter’s perception of along the ancient silk routes. Over time it became obvious asia influenced the thinking of many leading geographers that no single lines channelled these exchanges, but that a oftheirtimewhoattendedhislecturesincludingalexander webofpathsandroutesenabledthecrossingofdesertsand von Humboldt, Ferdinand Freiherr von richthofen, Carl mountainsbycaravans,expeditionsandindividualsontheir von Clausewitz, elisée reclus, arnold Henri guyot, Pyotr waytobetter-knowndestinations.Thelandsinbetweenap- Petrovich Semyonov.3 There was ample space for specu- ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 8 avant-propos lation about Bolor, and the placement of Badakhshan and onistshavebeenforgotten,ignoredorneglected,suchaslo- wakhanseemsratherarbitrary,butrumoursandtaleswere cal residents, bazaar dwellers and transport providers. The linkedtothePamirianinterface.4Itwastheearlyphaseofa personalitiesconcernedfulfilleddifferentdutiesandserved periodwhenoverallinterestinthecrossroadsledtosignifi- avarietyofexpectations. cantpoliticalchanges. grouping their diverse contributions, we may distin- Thewakhanquadranglegainedinattentionwhenparticu- guishbetween‘political’and‘non-political’,astheirclients larspheresofinfluencewereexpandedfromareassuchasaf- did in elaborated confidential abstracts and synopses. a ghanistan,qataghan,Fergana,KashgariaandKashmir–with most obvious and revealing presentation of a report divid- centres of power in Kabul, Kunduz, qoqand, Kashgar, and ed into these two rubrics is the account by Mukhtar Shah Srinagar – into their respective peripheries. locating places in the ‘Secret and confidential reports of Trans-Himalayan TheWakhanquadrangleshowsthe andknowingthepowerstructuresinremotespacesstartedto explorations in Badakhshán’, published with a preceding fourcorners,directionsandsourcesof becomeanendeavourofgeographicalexploration.resources, commentandsynopsisbythedeputySuperintendentofthe politicalinterferenceinlocalaffairs before,duringandaftertheGreat routes,andruleinthewakhanquadrangleenteredthefocus SurveyofIndiaColonelHenryCharlesBaskervilleTanner.6 Game.Themajorcolonialplayerswere of geographical knowledge production that became closely Individualscouldcontributetobothrubricsintheirreports; GreatBritainandRussiawhereas relatedtopoliticalschemingandstrategicconsiderations. the processors of information in the survey offices and in- Chinawascomparativelyweak. lateron,China,russiaandgreatBritaindirectedtheir telligence branches decided whether the narrations should Wakhan’sstrongestrelationswere intereststowardsthePamiriancrossroadsasmightypowers beconsideredandassessedtheirrelevancefortheirrespec- toBadakhshanandsubsequentlyto tendedtooverrideregionalinterestsortocreatedependen- tiveinterests.MostoftheinformationcollectedbyMukhtar Afghanistan.TheAmirofAfghanistan gainedthemajorterritorialportionof cy through loyalty agreements. The great game is mainly Shahwastermed‘non-political’;sometimesitwasaugment- Wakhanasaresultofboundary- perceived as a power-related competition between Tsarist edby‘political’informationthatoriginatedfromanaccount makingwhilethenorthernportion russiaandgreatBritainovercontrolanddominanceinaf- byMunshiabdulrahim,theoriginofwhichisnotfurther wasdominatedbyBokharaand ghanistan, Central asia and India. The outcome succeeded specifiedinthissource.7 Russia;nowadaysitispartof in averting confrontation between the mighty powers, no In order to give appropriate attention to this valuable Gorno-BadakhshanwithinTajikistan (seeHermannKreutzmann2015a: heavy losses were involved on their sides, but failed to re- source,theentirereportbyMunshiabdulrahimispresent- 205–293). spect regional sovereignty and local interests. Significant edhere.Thenarrator,whoistitledmunsh€orscribe,served DesignbyHermannKreutzmann numbers of residents in the wakhan quadrangle became the British raj as a ‘political’ traveller to Badakhshan and refugeesormigrantsthathadtogiveuptheirvillagesorno- wakhan.Onthebasisofhisdiscoveries,interviewsandob- madsthatwereforcedtoevacuateformergrazinggrounds. servations,hepreparedanextensiveaccountabouthiswinter asymmetricpowerrelationsarereflectedintheoutcome journeytowardsthewakhanquadranglein1879to1880for ofthegamble;thesameappliestotheperceptionofactors. theForeignOffice,whereitwasprintedfiveyearslaterinan Their functions and roles have been assessed and rated ac- englishtranslation.Hisreportwaswidelyignored,neglected cording to their position in the imperial setup. The widely orkeptsecret;thefewbitsandpiecesthathavebeenrepro- known and advertised heroes originated solely from eu- ducedappearmainlyinthe‘political’rubric.Othercolleagues rope. Their stories have been told many times.5 Yet many whoservedsimilarpurposesarebetterknownandtheirfind- more people were involved in various functions and dis- ings and stories have received more attention. Munshi ab- guises, such as geopolitical players and religious pilgrims, dulrahimisdefinitelyoneoftheforgottenexplorersofthe subalterns in colonial hierarchies and service providers in wakhanquadrangle,buthisreportdeservesdueattention.It imperialendeavours,knowledgeablepath-findersandcom- is an extraordinary communiqué in many respects, offering petenttranslatorsforindividualtravellersandmissions,gos- informationandinsightsabouthardshipsanddependencies, sip-collectingnewswriters,clandestinespiesandsecretmis- local chronologies and genealogies in contrast to those offi- sionaries,enterprisingmerchantsandprofit-seekingtraders, cialreportswhichoffertopographicalplacementsandroute trained intelligence officers and surveying assistants for descriptions that solely served military demands and strate- map-makers,trustedcompanionsandextraordinarysourc- gic interests. we do not know much about the personality, esofinheritedknowledge,localhistoriansandstorytellers. upbringing, professional background and even origin of the Thelistcouldbeprolongedevenfurther,formanyprotag- author,butweareacquaintedwiththeclientswhocommis- ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6 Traveloguesfromforgottenvisitors 9 The‘MapofAfghanistan,andthe adjacentcountries’waspublished undertheauspicesofthedirectorsof theEastIndiaCompany.Itshows KunduzandBadakhshanastwo little-knownprincipalitiesnorthofthe Hindukush.Themapprovidesmore detailedinformationabouttheAfghan territoriesandKashmir.Itwasreleased twoyearsbeforetheEastIndia Companyceded‘hillyormountainous country’totheMaharajaofKashmir intheTreatyofAmritsar(Charles UmpherstonAitchison1909,XI:264). Hunza,Sarikol,andWakhanarenot representedatall,buttherubyand lapislazuliminesaremarked. Source:MapofAfghanistan,andthe adjacentcountriesdrawnandengraved byJohnandCharlesWalkerin1844. CourtesyofthePamirArchive Collection sionedhisservicesatacrucialtime.Placesandtimingswillbe Introducingactorsandinterests contextualisedfromanumberofcontemporarysourcesthat provide insights into the hierarchical structures of employ- Theopeningchapterhighlightscertainaspectsthatdrawat- ing ‘native explorers’, the function of espionage and recon- tentionto why theremoteand comparativelylesswell-en- naissance trips, and the exploitation of spatial knowledge as dowedwakhanquadranglebecameageopoliticalpivotand acompetitiveadvantage.Concurrentandinterrelatedsources area of strategic interest in the era of international bound- about Badakhshan and wakhan provide additional insights ary-making. The 19th century shift of exploratory interest beyondtheprimeobjectiveofhiscommission.Publishinghis from the coastal lines towards the sources of the mighty accountprovidestheopportunitytoshifttheangleofcuriosi- asianriversmeantthathithertounknownmountainranges tyandscrutinyslightly:awayfromthefocusonbetter-known becamethetargetofexploration,expeditionsandmissions. ‘native explorers’ and their supervising colonial officers to- Thehiddenagendaofexpandingspheresofinfluenceresult- wardsnarrativesabouteverydaylife,challengesforsurvival, ed in monopolising territorial appropriation, domination rulingelites,commerce,slavetradeandprofessionaloccupa- anddemarcationofboundaries.Theattempttodefine‘sci- tions.MostlikelythetextwasrenderedfromMunshiabdul entific’andtofind‘natural’geographicalbordersdisguised rahim’soriginalPersianwritingintoenglishbyanunknown salientfeaturesoftheimperialprojectthatwouldleadtothe translator who must have been an employee in the colonial significant restructuring of political realms, revaluation of intelligenceserviceinSimla.InordertocontextualiseMunshi spatial properties, and transformation of social structures. abdul rahim’s narrative, it appeared advisable to frame his until the anglo-russian accord of 1907 it took less than account with an introduction and a comment, followed by half a century to shape and demarcate Central asian bor- asequelandapostscript.Theadditionalmaterialsupportsa dersinamannerthathashadlastingeffectsuntiltoday.The positioning of Munshi abdul rahim’s account in a defined gamblingentailedinthegreatgameinvolvednotonlysu- spatial setting and ranges from contemporary 19th century pra-regional imperial powers, but a number of smaller re- sourcestopresent-daylifeinBadakhshanandwakhan. gional and local players that gained or suffered. These po- ©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6