i ,,, d e p t h. VOTES f o r W O ~ N 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 2 8 Paula Bartley . , access to h i s t o r y ·o•· ·~ge Library ~x TW2 ?SJ - - VOr-1_,E~ for W O M E N 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 2 8 la Bartley ,_ - . \ ,• # ' I I • • • I 1 lllif }11111 106161 Hodder & Stoughton A MEiIBEH OF TllE lJOODER lJEADLJNE GROUP The posler on the fronl cover is reproduced courtesy of the London Museum. Dedication: For Kate McNaughton . . . . .. , .. ,.. ....J ...,. .. r, ('{· ., 7(o ~ (--- ............ 1ils(4711 ""tij tVWaw-.. • 1' I ; ' • _j. . . t 6 • j_ j_ 30~- 4U JC/ $A R, · If&; .,•,{ • M1 ~~'111.rll 11I IU>J111s; I. LI. ii ii t ti { ... ... ;; )I, •• Order queries: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 39 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4TD. Telephone: (44) 01235 400414, Fax (44) 01235 400454. Lines are open from 9.00 - 6.00, l\ilonday to Saturday, with a 24 hour message ans,1/ering service. En1ail address: [email protected] B-1itish /,ibra1y Cataloguing in Publiration Data A catalogue for this title is available forn1 the British Library I. BN 0-340-69724-5 Firs1 publi~hed 1998 Impression nu1nbcr 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Year 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 Cop}'right @ 1! )98 Paula Bartley AJI rights reserved. o pan of Lhis publication 1nay be reproduced or Lrans1nitted in any form or by any n1cans, electronic or n1cchanical, including photocop)'. recording, or any infot mation storage and retrieval S)'Slctn, without the pcrn1ission in writing from Lhc publisher or under licence forn1 Lhc CopyrighL Licensing Agency Li1nited. Fut her details of such licences (for rcprographic reproduction) 1nay be obtained fron1 the Copyright Licensing AgenC)' Lin1i1ed, 90 Tottenhan, Court Road. London v\'I P 91 IE IllusLnuions b)' Ian Foulis & Associates Ltd, altash Typeset by Se1npringhan1 publishing services, Bedford Prinled in Creal Bri1ain for Horlder & Stoughton educational, a division of lloddcr Headline Pie, 338 Euston Road, London Nv\11 3BH by Redwood Books, Trowbridge. \t\liltshire Contents Chapter I Introduction: Change and Continuity in lhe Po ition of Women 1860-1918 1 I Education 1 2 Work 3 3 11arriage 4 4 Sexual Morality 5 5 Politics 6 tudy Guides · 8 ' Chapte r 2 Votes for Women: The Debate 10 I T he Case for Votes for Women 10 · ·· a) The Rights of Women 10 b) Growth of Democracy 13 c) Means to an End 14 2 The Case Against Votes for Women 19 a) The Right to Rule 19 b) Psychological Differences 21 c) Male Influence 22 d) Women's Influence Outside Parliament 23 3 Conclusion 25 Study Guides 27 Chapter 3 Suffragists and Suffragettes 30 I The Origins of Women's Suffrage 30 a) Inrroduction 30 b) Uneasy Alliances 31 2 T he UWSS and its Offshoots: 1897-1914 32 3 The WSPU and its Offshoots: 1903-1914 35 35 a) Structure of the Organisation b) Suffragette Membership 37 39 c) Divisions within the WSPU 41 4 Conclusion 44 Study Guides 46 • Chapter 4 The Suffrage Campaigns .J 46 I Introduction 47 2 Legal methods 47 a) Meetings 49 b) Demonstrations an d Pilgrimages 50 c) Propaganda Techniques 51 d) Persuading Parliament 53 3 I1lega1 Methods 53 a) Tax Evasion and Census Resistance 54 b) Reasons for Increased Militancy 56 c) Window Sm ashing iv Contents 57 d) Arson Attacks 59 e) Other Damaging Behaviour f) Hunger Striking 59 g) Harassing Authority 60 4 Conclusion 63 Study Guides 65 Chapter S Men and Votes for Women 66 I The Political Parties 66 a) The Conservative Party 67 b) The Liberal Party 68 c) The Labour Party 69 2 The Liberal Government 1906-14 71 a) Reaction to Peaceful Campaigning 71 b) Reaction to Violent Campaigning 74 3 The Alternative Establishment 76 a) Trade Unions 76 b) Religious Croups 78 c) The Press 80 4 Male Organisations 80 S Conclusion 83 Study Guides 86 Chapter 6 Women, Suffrage and the First World War 88 I The Suffrage Movemen t and the War 8 a) The Women's Social and Political Union 89 b) The East London Federal.ion of Sttffragette 90 c) The National Union of Won1en's Suffrage Societies 92 2 Women' War Work and the Vote 93 3 War, Suffrage and the Government 96 4 Conclusion 99 Study Guides 101 Chapter 7 Conclusion: Life after Suffrage 104 I The Effect of the Vote 104 a) Effects on Parliament 105 b) Effects on v\lo1nen's vVork 106 c) Effects on Marriage and the Family 108 cl) Effects on exual Morality 109 e) Effects on the Won1en's Movement 110 Study Guides 113 Chronological Table 115 Further Reacting 11 8 Index 121 Acknowledge1nents 122 Preface The 01;ginal Access to History series \Vas conceived as a collection of sets of book covering popular chronological periods in British history, S\tch ~s 'The Tudor 'and 'the nineteenth century', together with the h1stor1es of other countries, such as France, Germany, Russia and the USA. This arrangement complemented the way in \Vhich early-mod ern and modern history has traditionally been taught in sixth forms, ~ollege and univer ities. In recent years, however, other ways of divid ing up the pa t have become increasingly popular. In particular, there has been a greater emphasis 011 studying relatively brief periods in considerable detail a11d on comparing similar historical phenomena in different countries. These developments have generated a demand for appropriate learning mate1ials, and, in response, two new 'strands' are being added to the main series -In Depth and Themes. The ne\v volumes bujJd directly on the features that have made Access to History o popular. To the general reader Although Access books have been specifically designed to meet the needs of examination tudents, these volumes also have much to offer the general reader. Access authors are committed to the belief that good history must not only be accurate, up-to-date and scholarly, but also clearly and attractively written. The main body of the text (excluding the Study Guides) should, therefore, form a readable and engaging survey of a topic. Moreover, each author has aimed not merely to provide as clear an explanation as possible of what hap pened in the past but also to stimulate readers and to challenge them into thinking for themselves about the past and its significance. Thus, although no prior knowledge is expected fro.m the reader, he or she is treated as an intelljgent and thinking person throughout. The author tends to share ideas and explore possibilities, instead of delivering so called 'historical truths' from on rugh. To the student reader It is intended that Access books should be used by students studying History at a higher Jevel. Its volumes are all designed to be working texts, which should be reasonably clear on a first reading but which will benefit from re-reading and close study. To be an effective and successful student, you need to budget your time wisely. Hence you should think carefu11y about how importaJtt the material in a particu lar book is for you. If you simply need to acquire a general grasp of a topic, the following approach will probably be effective: I Read Chapter 1, which should give you an overview of the whole book, and think about its contents. vi Preface 2 Skim Lhrough Chapter 2, paying particular attention to the opening section and to the headings and sub-headings. Decide if you need to read the whole chapter. 3 If you do, read the chapter, stopping at the end of every sub-divi sion of the text to make notes. 4 Repeat stage 2 (and stage 3 \.vhere appropriate) for the other chapters. If, ho\.vever, your course - and your particular approach to it - demands a detailed k.J10\,vledge of the contents of the book, you will need to be correspondingly more thorough. There is no perfect way of studying, and it is particularly worth\-vhile experimenting with different styles of note-making to find the one that best suits you. Nevertheless, the following plan of action is worth trying: 1 Read a vvhole chapter quickly, preferably at one sitting. Avoid the temptation - which may be very great - to make notes at this tage. 2 Study the flow diagram at the end of the chapter, ensuring that you understand the general 'shape' of vvhat you have read. 3 Re-read the chapter more slowly, this time taking notes. You 1nay \.veil be amazed at how much more intelligible and straightfor \,vard the material seems on a second reading - and your notes will be correspondingly more useful to you when you have to write an essay or revise for an exam. In the long run, reading a chapter l:\.vice can, in fact, often save time. Be sure to make your notes in a clear, orderly fashion , and pread them out o that, if necessary, you can later add extra infor1nation. 4 Read the advice on essay questions, and do tackle the specimen titles. (Remember that if learning is to be effective, it 1nust be active. No one - alas - has yet devi ed any sub titute for real effort. It is up to you to make up your own mind on the key issues in any topic.) 5 Attempt the source-based questions. The guidance on tackling these exercises, ,-vhich is generally given at least once in a book, is well worth reading and thinking about. When you have finished the 1nain chapters, go through the 'Further Reading' section. Reme1nber that no single book ca11 ever do 111ore than introduce a topic, and it is to be hoped that - time permitting - you will want to read 1nore ,,videly. If Access books help you to discover jusl how diverse and fascinat..ing the human pasl can be, the serjes will have succeeded in its ain1 - and you will experience that enlhusiasm for the subject which, along ,-vith efficient learning, is the hallmark of all the best students. Robert Pearce Introduction: Change and Continuity in the Position of Women 1860-1918 'Watch out, boy - they're co1ning. From no,v on, the House of Co!nmon \viJl no longer be a 1nen-only club.' So predicted a leading 1 ~rtlcle when 116 \VOmen v.ron scats as MPs in the 1997 general elec oon, 79 years after ,.vomen were first granted the vote. However, in 1918 the majority of,vomen \.Vere still denied the franchise as the vote ,vas only given to wornen over the age of 30 ,.vho were on the local government regi ter or married to men on the local government register. In fact, wo1nen had to wait another ten years before they achieved the vote on equal terms ,vith men. Eventually, in 1928, all women, regardle of their marital status or financial position, were enfranchi ed. Even so, votes for women ,vere gained only after a long, and at times highly controversial, campaign. This book tells the story of the suffragists (usually thought of as peaceful campaigners) and the suffragette (u ually thought of as more violent) who fought hard for this objective. Yet, although this book is about women's suffrage, the vote was just one of a number of demands put forward by those who campaigned for social change. By the time ,-vomen had gained even a limited vote, early feminists (that is women who wanted to improve the position of women) had chalked up some formidable achievemen ts. I Education Education was een, by feminists, as the key to unlock the closed doors of the masculine world of politics. In the 1860s when the campaign for the suffrage began in earnest, the majority of women from all social classes generally lacked a for1nal education, but by 1918 there had been some remarkable changes, though not all as a response to pressure from women and not always beneficial to them. As Dorothy Thomson has pointed out, generalizations about a whole 2 gender have to be treated \.vith great caution' . Educational develop ments affected working-class and middle-class girls and women quite differently: while it is thought to have li1nited the working class, it opened up opportunities for their middle-class counterparts. Until 1870 working-class girls were educated in a variety of ways. Young factory workers attended factory schools, whereas pauper chil dren went to workhouse schools. The remainder of the female popu lation, if formally educated at all, ,.vere taught in small fee-paying schools run by older won1en or charity schools set up by religious 2 Introduction: Change and Continuity in the Position of Women 1860- 19 18 foundations. After 1870 st.ale schools replaced this informal syste1n . The period frorn 1870 onwards savv the construction of a state educa tion system \Vhich by 1918 had made schooling compul ory for all children up to the age of thirteen. The new state-funded system of education gave s01ne chances for working-class girls to become numerate and literate - by the end of the nineteenth century 97 per cent of all children could read and ,vrite - but it offered too narrow a curriculum, too rigid a teaching method and too large a class size to have any great effect. State schools emphasised the domestication, rather than the e1nancipation, of working-class girls. All too often, the school syl.labus included cookery, needle\vork and housewifery at the expense of other ubjects. Indeed, in 1878, domestic economy beca1ne a compulsory subject for girls but not for boys. It has been suggested that state schools were n1ore finishing schools for tJ1e manual worker, preparing girls either for dome tic service or for the role of wife and mother, rather than educational establishments in the \vider sense. In this way they reaffirmed, rather than challenged, worn en's role in society. Change, for the young working-clas school girl, did not therefore necessarily 1nean progress. In contrast, the changes in middle-class education occurred as a result of pressure from below and, possibly as a con equence of thi , offered better opportunities. In mid-nineteenth century Britain the majority of girls of the middle and upper classes did not go to chool but were educated at ho,ne by a governess or by a mernber of their family. Some attended sn1all family-type schools but the nat11re of their education remained virtually identical to that of tho e taught at ho1ne. Middle-class and upper-class girl were ed ucated to be wives and mothers of 1nen from the sa1ne social class rather tJ1an to go out to ,.vork for a living. By 1918, largely through the co1n bined efforts of feminists and the government, this had changed to ome extent because a number of new school , ,vhich offered an academic curriculum con isting of science, econon1ic and 1nathen1atic , were opened for the daughters of middle- and u pper-cla fa1nilies. Feminists al o ,,vorked hard to achieve entry to higher education for wo1nen. By 1860 both Queen' and Bedford College, London had educated a nu1nber of leading fe1n inists uch a Barbara Bodichon and Elizabeth Blackwell yet the re l of higher education re1nained resolutely 1n ale. All \.VOmcn, whatever their intelligence or capability, were denied access to both universitie and medical schools. This prompted a nun1ber of fetninists to ca1npaign for ,vomen 's access to n1cdical training and univer ities and to promote the D·aining of teachers. By the end of the nineteenth century both London and Manchester Universities accepted won1en, various wo1nen's colleges had been founded Oxford and Cambridge (even though wo1n en al were not allo,.ved to be awarded degrees) and women's teacher training colleges established. In turn these won1en went to teach in the newly opened secondary schools for girls. Ho,vever, despite the