May 2010 Visions of Apocalypse What Jews, Christians, and Muslims Believe about the End Times, and How Those Beliefs Affect Our World An essay on comparative eschatology among the three Abrahamic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—and how beliefs about the end times express themselves through foreign policy and conflict By Robert Leonhard STRATEGIC ASSESSMENTS NATIONAL SECURITY ANALYSIS DEPARTMENT THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY • APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, Maryland 20723-6099 The creation of this monograph was sponsored by the Strategic Assessments Project within the National Security Analysis Department of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL). Its ideas are intended to stimulate and provoke thinking about national security issues. Not everyone will agree with the premises put forward. It should be noted that this monograph reflects the views of the author alone and does not imply concurrence by APL or any other organization or agency. Table of Contents Preface………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………Page 3 Chapter 1: Prophecy and Interpretation ………………………………………………….…………………Page 10 Chapter 2: Mélekh ha-Mashíah (The Anointed King): Judaism and the End Times…......Page 21 Chapter 3: Thy Kingdom Come: Christianity and the End Times…………………….…………….Page 54 Chapter 4: The Awaited One: Islam and the End Times……………………………….………..…….Page 102 Chapter 5: Conclusion: The Crucible of Prophecy……………………………………………………....Page 121 2 PREFACE On the slopes of the Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem and within sight of both the Temple Mount and the al-Aqsa Mosque, lie 150,000 Jewish graves dating from ancient times through today. Many of the bodies are buried with their feet toward the city, because ancient prophets declared that the resurrection would begin there, and the faithful would rise and follow the Messiah into the Holy City. On their way to the Golden Gate the risen will pass several prominent Christian churches that were built there to commemorate the Jews’ rejection of a man who was later crucified and became the founder of a worldwide faith related to (but often in conflict with) Judaism. The Christians disagree with the Jews, because they believe that man was and remains the Messiah that the Jews are waiting for. They agree with the Jews, however, that he will arrive at that very spot and enter the Holy City with the saints behind him. When the Messiah and his entourage—whether Jewish or Christian—reach the Golden Gate (the place that ancient prophets said the Messiah would enter the city) they will find it sealed off. Over five hundred years ago, an Ottoman sultan, champion and protector of Islam, determined to block the Jewish Messiah’s entry and walled off the gate. Informed that the prophet Elijah would precede the Messiah, the sultan also constructed a cemetery at the foot of the gate, believing that a holy man would not tread on a grave. Years later, Jewish rabbis ruled that it would be permissible for Elijah to walk there anyway, because the prohibition only pertains to Jewish graves. 3 Jerusalem is the epicenter of eschatology—the focal point of the apocalyptic scenarios of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three faiths think of the city as their own. All three faiths gave rise to prophecies that the end of human history will occur there. The story of how these three systems of belief think about the end times and how those visions of apocalypse affect our world underlies much of what occurs in our world today. Since 1967 and the Six Day War, American presidents have often joined international efforts to stop Jewish settlement on Israeli-occupied territory in Palestine, because building homes on the disputed land provokes angry responses from the dispossessed Arabs in the region and disrupts efforts to achieve a Middle East peace. What you may not know is that the Israeli term for the disputed settlements (hitnakhluyot) refers to Biblical promises from God to Israel concerning ownership of the land, and that some groups of settlers believe that by building homes there, they are helping to hasten the arrival of the Messiah and the end of human history. The United States and her European allies oppose Iranian nuclear developments, fearing that the Shiite government there is determined to make weapons of mass destruction. Some pundits believe that the Iranian nuclear weapons program is unstoppable and that the US should acquiesce and formulate a nuclear deterrent strategy similar to one used against the Soviets in the Cold War. What you may not know is that Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad claims to be in contact with a man born in the 9th century who is still alive today, and he is an adherent of an Islamic school that teaches students that the end times have 4 arrived and that in the wake of an exchange of nuclear weapons, God will intervene to save Muslims and destroy their enemies. Over the course of the last two centuries, American politicians have pursued a vision of the United States as a beacon to the rest of the world. Presidents on both the political right and left have spoken of a world devoid of crime, war, pollution, and want. Opponents have attacked these lofty goals as unachievable and a colossal waste of resources. What you may not know is that both views are rooted in ancient prophecies about the end times, and that differences in political views today emanate from differences in Biblical interpretation from two thousand years ago. Our world is shaped, influenced, and in some cases governed by age-old prophecies recorded in the sacred literature of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Quite apart from the theological question of whether a divine being has a hand in world affairs, believers and their views on prophecies indisputably affect our world. The terrorist who is planning to attack you, and the government trying to protect you have different views about how (or if) human history will end. The Jewish settler building an illegal home in Hebron and the Israeli policeman coming to arrest him represent two radically different approaches to how to interpret the Book of Isaiah. The Hamas terrorist who wants to kill both of them likewise has a compelling and very different belief about the end times and has his own interpretation of Isaiah. Christians, who believe in Jesus the Son of Mary, fear Muslim radicals, who also believe in Jesus the Son of Mary, but who have a very different idea of how Jesus will return and what He will do when He arrives. 5 The influence of eschatology (beliefs about the end times) pervades our world. Why do some Americans attach religious significance to the State of Israel while others dispute the Jews’ right to land taken in the Six Day War? Why do some Orthodox Jews support the secular government that rules them while others deprecate it—even to the point of actively cooperating with Israel’s enemies? Why does the United Nations garden in New York contain a bronze statue adorned with the words of an ancient Jewish prophet—a sculpture given to the UN by an officially atheistic country? Why do some Christians in America get angry about how fellow Christians interpret the Book of Revelation and label them escapists, fascists, and enemies of conservation? The answers to these questions are complex. But at the root of them and many other issues in our world today are ancient beliefs about how (or if) human history will end. Lately I live in two worlds. From Monday through Friday I work as a national security analyst at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland. On the weekends I teach adult education, including Biblical eschatology, at my church. Over the years, my fascination has grown at how those two worlds relate to each other. On the one hand, they don’t relate at all, because 21st century America clings to that sacred principle of unsacredness—the separation of church and state—that has protected religious freedom in our country for two centuries. On the other hand, the two subjects constantly intrude on each others’ domain and endlessly violate the artificial boundary between them. The Bible has much to say about politics, warfare, and the course of humanity’s history and future. National 6 security affairs, in turn, must wrestle with the belief systems that frame the cultural interactions within our world. We are a nation that likes to believe that our religious beliefs do not affect our foreign policy formulation too much. We will allow social conservatism to clash with liberal and progressive agendas in matters of life, death, and morality. But for most Americans, it would be hard to detect how matters of faith influence our foreign policy. Not so for our adversaries. If we were to eavesdrop on Islamic extremists planning their next attacks against the West, we would find the conversation punctuated by (if not riveted to) visions of apocalypse. Jihadists often express their violent impulses in terms of eschatological beliefs. Indeed, not a few believe that their acts of aggression against infidels contribute to a sort of “jump-starting” the end times program. But surely 21st century Americans are beyond all that. Or are we? As I examined the subject more closely I found strong eschatological themes expressing themselves in American foreign policy. Both right- and left-wing agendas, both conservative and liberal ministers, both hawks and doves have recourse to Biblical expressions, symbols, and themes as they shape the course of foreign relations. In fact, as this essay will reveal, differences in how one interprets Biblical prophecy lie at the very heart of policy debates today. The verbiage contained in our country’s foundational documents, Lincoln’s inaugural address, our most recent National Security Strategy, and even in the latest Quadrennial Defense Review points toward a future first framed by a collection of prophetic writings dating back to the 8th century BCE. Likewise, 7 those same words elicit suspicion, contempt, and even violence from some who read them, because they interpret those same prophecies in a radically different way. In a similar manner, Jewish beliefs about the end times influence activities within the state of Israel and color Israel’s relations with her neighbors. As with Christians in America, Jews within (and without) Israel differ significantly in what they think about end times prophecy, and those differences in turn express themselves through politics, foreign relations, and war. All three beliefs—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—claim descent from Abraham. It should not surprise us, then, that all three beliefs contain compelling and controversial visions of how human history will end, because according to the record in Genesis, God’s promises to Abraham included universal and eschatological dimensions. "I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you." (Genesis 12: 2, 3 [NIV]) All three faiths believe they are the heirs or benefactors of those promises, and even modern adherents think about the world around them in terms of how those promises and the prophecies that followed will play out. This book is aimed at tracing those beliefs, observing how they express themselves today, and how they interact— sometimes violently—with each other. My intent is to enumerate (not evaluate) religious beliefs about the end times. My aim is to introduce into the debate over foreign affairs an essential though largely ignored subject. In considering the course of human history and the near-term and far-term future, it would be 8 foolish to ignore the great prophetic writings out of a sense of intellectual arrogance, the more so when those visions of apocalypse are so deeply ingrained into the world-views of millions of people. By understanding the essential eschatological themes that are present even in the most coldly calculated policy formulation today, the student, analyst, official, devoted believer, and dismissive unbeliever can better comprehend the world. Prophets of the Old Testament spoke to both believers and unbelievers; their prophecies generated both obedience and disdain. Some prophets were promoted and rewarded while others were berated, jailed, and killed. But their words live on; their visions of apocalypse thrive today. NOTE: I have used the BCE/CE method of dating throughout this essay, as opposed to using Christian or Islamic methodology. Additionally, I have used the most common forms of names for people or writings, which will, of course, vary from Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin, or Arabic spelling. 9 CHAPTER ONE Prophecy and Interpretation The Sacred Literature This essay deals with eschatology and its effects on foreign policy in the modern world. The word derives from the Greek word έσχάτος (ESCHATOS), which means “last” or, by extension, “last things”. Eschatology is the study of last things—specifically the end of human history, including the final judgment of mankind. Many faiths feature beliefs about the end times, but the three eschatologies we shall examine in this work are of special note because Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have strong and enduring effects in the United States, Israel, and the Islamic world, respectively, and because they are related to each other—often overlapping or violently clashing in their dogmas. The three Abrahamic faiths each have a body of foundational literature that is considered (by most or at least many believers) to be sacred—i.e., of divine origin. The Hebrew Bible, composed of what Christians refer to as the Old Testament, includes three major subdivisions: the Torah (i.e., the Law, the Pentateuch), which includes the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; the Nevi’im (the Prophets), including the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi; and the Ketuvim (the Writings), which includes Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, 10