VISIBLE LIGHT COMMUNICATION BASED INDOOR LOCALIZATION Mohsen Kavehrad and Reza Aminikashani Visible Light Communication Based Indoor Localization Visible Light Communication Based Indoor Localization Mohsen Kavehrad Reza Aminikashani CRCPress Taylor&FrancisGroup 6000BrokenSoundParkwayNW,Suite300 BocaRaton,FL33487-2742 (cid:13)c 2020byTaylor&FrancisGroup,LLC CRCPressisanimprintofTaylor&FrancisGroup,anInformabusiness NoclaimtooriginalU.S.Governmentworks Printedonacid-freepaper InternationalStandardBookNumber-13:978-1-138-61747-6(Hardback) Thisbookcontainsinformationobtainedfromauthenticandhighlyregardedsources.Reasonableefforts havebeenmadetopublishreliabledataandinformation,buttheauthorandpublishercannotassume responsibilityforthevalidityofallmaterialsortheconsequencesoftheiruse.Theauthorsandpublishers haveattemptedtotracethecopyrightholdersofallmaterialreproducedinthispublicationandapologize tocopyrightholdersifpermissiontopublishinthisformhasnotbeenobtained.Ifanycopyrightmaterial hasnotbeenacknowledgedpleasewriteandletusknowsowemayrectifyinanyfuturereprint. 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VisittheTaylor&FrancisWebsiteat http://www.taylorandfrancis.com andtheCRCPressWebsiteat http://www.crcpress.com Dedication MohsenKavehrad: Tomyfamilyfortheirloveandsupport RezaAminikashani: Tomywife,Sepideh,andmydaughter,Eva.whenshewasnotbornyet Contents Preface.......................................................................................................................ix Chapter1 IntroductionandOverview..............................................................1 Chapter2 FundamentalsofVisibleLightCommunication.............................5 2.1 SystemModel.........................................................................5 2.1.1 Transmitter.................................................................5 2.1.2 Receiver.....................................................................8 2.1.3 Channel....................................................................12 2.2 ModulationTechniques........................................................13 2.3 NoiseCharacteristic..............................................................14 Chapter3 PositioningAlgorithmsandSystems.............................................17 3.1 PositioningAlgorithms.........................................................17 3.1.1 Triangulation............................................................17 3.1.2 Lateration.................................................................18 3.1.2.1 Time-basedDistanceEstimation.............18 3.1.2.2 DistanceEstimationBasedonSignal Attenuation..............................................20 3.1.3 Angulation................................................................20 3.1.4 SceneAnalysis.........................................................21 3.1.5 Proximity.................................................................22 3.2 IndoorPositioningSystems..................................................22 3.2.1 Assisted-GPS...........................................................22 3.2.2 Bluetooth..................................................................23 3.2.3 RadioFrequencyIdentification................................23 3.2.4 Geo-Magnetism........................................................24 3.2.5 Ultra-Wideband........................................................24 3.2.6 WirelessLocalAreaNetwork..................................25 3.2.7 InertialNavigationSystem......................................25 3.2.8 Zigbee......................................................................26 3.2.9 VisibleLightCommunication..................................26 Chapter4 VisibleLightPositioningSystems.................................................31 4.1 SystemConfigurationandChannelAccessMethod............31 4.1.1 TimeDivisionMultipleAccess...............................31 4.1.2 BasicFramedSlottedALOHA................................31 4.2 PositioningAlgorithmfor2-DScenario...............................34 vii viii Contents 4.3 LinearLeastSquareEstimation............................................35 4.4 PositioningAlgorithmfora3-DScenario............................39 Chapter5 FilteringTechniquesinPositioning...............................................45 5.1 KalmanFilter........................................................................45 5.1.1 DerivationofKalmanFilter.....................................45 5.1.2 KalmanFilterin2-Dand3-DScenarios.................47 5.2 ParticleFilter........................................................................49 5.2.1 PrincipleofParticleFilter........................................49 5.2.2 ParticleFilterin2-Dand3-DScenarios..................50 5.3 GaussianMixtureSigma-PointParticleFilter......................51 5.3.1 Principle...................................................................52 5.3.2 GM-SPPFin2-Dand3-DScenarios.......................54 5.4 PositioningPerformanceandDiscussions............................56 Chapter6 Three-Dimensional Positioning Based on Nonlinear Estimation andMultipleReceivers..................................................................61 6.1 3-DPositioningBasedonNonlinearEstimation..................61 6.1.1 TrustRegionReflectiveAlgorithm..........................61 6.1.2 3-DPositioningAlgorithm......................................62 6.1.3 SimulationandResults............................................64 6.2 3-DPositioningBasedonMultipleReceivers......................64 6.2.1 3-DPositioningAlgorithms.....................................65 6.2.1.1 ReceivedSignalStrengthMethod...........65 6.2.1.2 AngleofArrivalMethod.........................69 6.2.1.3 CombinedRSSandAoAUsing MultipleReceivers...................................70 6.2.2 SimulationandResults............................................74 Chapter7 ImpactofMultipathReflections....................................................79 7.1 ImpulseResponse.................................................................79 7.2 DeterministicApproach........................................................81 7.3 MMCApproach....................................................................82 7.4 CDMMCMethod..................................................................83 7.5 AnalysisofImpulseResponse..............................................84 7.6 PowerIntensityDistributionAnalysis..................................89 7.7 PositioningAccuracy............................................................90 7.8 CalibrationApproaches........................................................93 7.8.1 NonlinearEstimation...............................................93 7.8.2 SelectionofLEDSignals.........................................98 7.8.3 DecreasingtheDistanceBetweenLEDBulbs.......100 Contents ix Chapter8 OFDMBasedPositioningAlgorithm..........................................105 8.1 OFDMinCommunication..................................................105 8.2 OFDMforVLC..................................................................106 8.2.1 PAM-DMT.............................................................107 8.2.2 DCO-OFDM..........................................................108 8.2.3 ACO-OFDM..........................................................109 8.3 OFDMinVLCpositioning.................................................110 8.3.1 SystemModel........................................................111 8.3.2 PositioningAlgorithm............................................114 8.4 SimulationandAnalysis.....................................................115 8.4.1 PerformanceComparisonofSingle-and MulticarrierModulationSchemes.........................116 8.4.2 EffectofSignalPoweronthePositioning Accuracy................................................................121 8.4.3 Effect of Modulation Order on the Positioning Accuracy................................................................123 8.4.4 EffectofNumberofSubcarriersonthe PositioningAccuracy.............................................123 Chapter9 SensorFusion..............................................................................129 9.1 MethodsandGoals.............................................................130 9.2 InertialNavigationSystem.................................................131 9.2.1 StablePlatformSystems........................................131 9.2.2 Strap-downSystems...............................................131 9.3 InertialSensors...................................................................133 9.3.1 MEMSAccelerometer...........................................134 9.3.2 MEMSGyroscope.................................................135 9.4 RealizationbyKalmanFilter..............................................135 9.5 SimulationandResults.......................................................137 Glossary................................................................................................................143 Index......................................................................................................................147