Karen Stendal Virtual World Affordances for People with Lifelong Disability Doctoral Dissertation University of Agder Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences Department of Information Systems 2014 Doctoral Dissertations at the University of Agder 76 ISSN: 1504-9272 ISBN: 978-82-7117-755-3  Karen Stendal, 2014 Printed by the Printing Office, University of Agder Kristiansand ii Acknowledgement "You'll never do a whole lot unless you're brave enough to try." – Dolly Parton First, I want to thank my supervisors, Judith Molka-Danielsen, Susan Balandin, and Bjørn Erik Munkvold, for their support through this PhD process. I am thankful for your constructive comments, great discussions, and co-authorship of articles. I also want to thank Molde University College for offering me the opportunity to be a part of this very interesting project, and the University of Agder (UiA) for the opportunity to conduct my PhD studies in Kristiansand. In addition, I want to thank Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD) for funding this project at Molde University College. I especially want to thank all employees at Department of Information systems at UiA for a great work environment, inspiring discussions, and support through this process. I am particularly grateful to Soffi Westin, Marius Rohde Johannessen, Fathul Wahid, and Bente Elisabeth Holmen for being excellent colleagues and good friends. Together, the Department of Information Systems has made this journey a very special time. I also thank my family and friends for their support through these years. I want to thank my parents, Fried and Eddie, who through my upbringing made me into an individual with a great internal drive for knowledge and prepared me for this journey. I want to thank Cathy for her support and guidance while proofreading. I would like to dedicate this work to my cousin, Sigurd T. Stendal, who inspired me to take on this project. He is a great person and an important member of the Stendal clan. I am also grateful to the 18 participants, the adult learning centers and Virtual Ability Inc., for being a part of this study. iii iv Abstract This thesis explores virtual world affordances offered to people with lifelong disability. The central research question is expressed as follows: What are the affordances of a virtual world for people with lifelong disability? To address this question, the research relies on the exploratory, qualitative method. The empirical portion of the study was conducted through participatory observation and in-depth interviews; data was collected from both novice and experienced users of the virtual world Second Life™. The group of participants consisted of 11 novice participants located in Norway and 7 experienced participants located in the United States and South Africa. Novice participants were recruited through organizations in their local community, such as adult learning centers. The experienced participants were recruited through Virtual Ability Island, a non-profit organization helping people with disability in Second Life (virtualability.org). The data collection and data analyses were conducted in 2011 and 2012. The research approach was applied to gather rich data on users with lifelong disability, to understand their uses of and experiences in the virtual world. By including novice and experienced participants, the thesis explores how individuals with various levels of skills use and experience virtual worlds. The data analyses were based on themes and theories from previous research and on findings from analyses themselves through the theoretical lenses of Embodied Social Presence theory, Technology Capabilities of virtual worlds, and Quality of Life factors and domains. The results determined through these theoretical lenses were used to identify the affordances offered by virtual worlds to people with lifelong disability. The research results of this thesis are presented in five articles published or accepted for publication in international peer-reviewed conference proceedings and journals. The thesis summary presents the outcome of the research and describes how the different publications interconnect. The findings from this thesis show that virtual worlds offer valuable affordances for people with lifelong disability and identify six affordances offered: communication, mobility, personalization, social inclusion, personal development, and joint activity. The study also concludes that the affordances identified may represent constraints to some people because of their disability. v Furthermore, the findings from this study may encourage government decision makers to offer computers in homes, institutions, and other locations in which people with lifelong disability can have access to virtual worlds. By making the appropriate technology available, a substantially greater amount of people with lifelong disability may be encouraged to test virtual worlds and discover the affordances they offer. However, assistive technology and introductory training are required and should be available to those who need it. This research contributes to theory by applying previous theoretical frameworks (e.g., Embodied Social Presence theory, Technology Capabilities of virtual worlds, and Quality of Life factors and domains) in a new context, which affirms these theories, factors, and domains are helpful when explaining the phenomenon of virtual worlds for people with lifelong disability. In addition, the perspective of affordances was applied to identify the affordances offered by virtual worlds to people with lifelong disability. By doing this, this study creates a nuanced understanding of affordances offered by virtual worlds. The findings indicate information systems research can benefit from including people with disability, the challenges they may encounter when taking advantage of technology, when developing theories. The thesis also contributes to the knowledge base of virtual worlds and people with lifelong disability by basing its findings on empirical data. By conducting empirical research, this thesis contributes to a more expansive understanding of the challenges, opportunities, and values virtual worlds offer people with lifelong disability. Ethical clearance for the research was obtained from the Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD). This study is part of a larger project conducted at Molde University College, Norway, that focused on virtual worlds to reduce loneliness for people with lifelong disability, and improving attitudes toward this user group. The project is part of a Strategic College Project funded by the Norwegian Research Council. vi Table of Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Problem statement ............................................................................................. 3 1.2 Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................ 6 2 Related literature and theoretical perspectives ........................................................ 7 2.1 Affordances ....................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Virtual Worlds ................................................................................................... 9 2.3 People with lifelong disability ......................................................................... 15 2.4 ICT and people with lifelong disability ........................................................... 18 2.5 Theoretical Perspectives .................................................................................. 22 2.6 Summary of the literature ................................................................................ 29 3 Research approach ................................................................................................. 33 3.1 Research design ............................................................................................... 33 3.2 An exploratory qualitative study ..................................................................... 34 3.3 Validity issues ................................................................................................. 50 4 Research publications ............................................................................................ 53 4.1 Why is this research important? ...................................................................... 54 4.2 Exploring the field ........................................................................................... 55 4.3 Technical affordances using virtual worlds .................................................... 57 4.4 Exploring the relationship with virtual self and others ................................... 60 4.5 Social affordances offered by virtual worlds .................................................. 62 4.6 Summary of the focus of the publications ....................................................... 64 5 Contributions ......................................................................................................... 65 5.1 Affordance 1: Communication ........................................................................ 67 5.2 Affordance 2: Mobility .................................................................................... 71 5.3 Affordance 3: Personalization ......................................................................... 72 5.4 Affordance 4: Social inclusion ........................................................................ 75 5.5 Affordance 5: Personal development .............................................................. 77 5.6 Affordance 6: Joint activity ............................................................................. 80 5.7 Limitations ....................................................................................................... 81 6 Conclusion and implications ................................................................................. 85 6.1 Summary of contribution to knowledge .......................................................... 85 6.2 Implications for practice .................................................................................. 86 6.3 Implications for further research ..................................................................... 88 References ..................................................................................................................... 91 Appendix A - Interview guides ................................................................................... 101 Appendix B - Coding example ................................................................................... 105 Appendix C - Example of feedback at Virtual Ability Island .................................... 107 Appendix D - Research publications .......................................................................... 109 vii List of Figures Figure 3.1 Observation of leisure activities with novice participants .......................... 39 Figure 3.2 Interviewing experienced participants ......................................................... 44 Figure 3.3 Theory used to identify affordances ............................................................ 48 Figure 3.4 Analyses to identify affordances ................................................................. 48 Figure 4.1 Technology capabilities and affordances of virtual worlds ........................ 58 Figure 4.2 Papers' relationship to identified affordances .............................................. 64 Figure 5.1 Theoretical contribution to identified affordances ...................................... 67 Figure 5.2 Personalization of an avatar ........................................................................ 73 List of Tables Table 2.1 Quality of life factors and domains (Schalock et al., 2011) ......................... 27 Table 2.2 Contributions from the literature relevant for the research questions .......... 30 Table 3.1 Participants in this study ............................................................................... 37 Table 3.2 Plan of sessions in Second Life .................................................................... 41 Table 3.3 Examples of locations visited and activities available during sessions ........ 43 Table 3.4 Data collection activities ............................................................................... 45 Table 3.5 Use of theory in data collection and analysis ............................................... 47 Table 3.6 Codes derived from theories ......................................................................... 47 Table 4.1 Research publications ................................................................................... 53 Table 4.2 The relationship between research sub-questions and publications ............ 54 Table 4.3 Capabilities, affordances and challenges of virtual worlds (from publication 3 (Stendal & Molka-Danielsen, 2013)) ......................................................................... 59 Table 4.4 Participants’ experience of the five stages of embodied social presence ..... 61 Table 4.5 Social affordances offered by virtual worlds ................................................ 63 Table 5.1 Virtual world affordances for people with lifelong disability ...................... 66 Table 6.1 Affordances offered by virtual worlds to people with lifelong disability .... 86 viii 1 Introduction This thesis examines the affordances offered to people with lifelong disability by virtual worlds. Affordances are understood as a co-evolution between humans and the environment (Bloomfield, Latham, & Vurdubakis, 2010). In this thesis, the co- evolution between the virtual environment, represented by Second Life™, and people with lifelong disability will be explored. An affordance perspective builds on the fact that a technology has some identified functionalities or capabilities, but these need to be recognized as social objects (Zammuto, Griffith, Majchrzak, Dougherty, & Faraj, 2007). The lens of affordances is particularly appropriate when studying how people with disability engage with and are engaged by technology (Bloomfield et al., 2010). People with lifelong disability constitute a large group of the world’s population. Approximately one billion of the world’s population have some type of disability (Krueger & Stineman, 2011). Due to known participation and inclusion challenges, this study focuses on people with lifelong disability whose impairment has occurred before the age of 22 and on whom the impact of the impairment is lifelong. Lifelong disability include but are not limited to intellectual disability, autism, deafness, epilepsy, polio, and cerebral palsy (Ansello & O'Neill, 2010). People with disability experience barriers to social inclusion and entering the work force and are less likely to have interpersonal relationships outside of family ties (Ballin & Balandin, 2007). The feeling of being treated as different and not being seen as equal to people without disability is a challenge. This because there is a sense that society treats people with disability as if impairment in one area of function invalidates their abilities or access to opportunity in another area (Hammel et al., 2008). While mobility and accessibility are key issues for people with disability, communication has also been identified as a key issue (Morgan & Balandin, 1997). Communication challenges affect the ability to interact with others and to initiate or maintain friendships. Communication is an important part of being connected and feeling as a part of a community or society; therefore, feelings of exclusion may affect individuals’ ability to communicate and become involved (Jackson, 2006). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has shown promise in helping people with lifelong disability to overcome or reduce these barriers. ICT also empowers people with disability to experience independence, social connections, and inclusion in society (Renblad, 2003). Virtual worlds, online three-dimensional worlds, offer an environment for entertainment, social settings, employment, and business. Previous research has shown people with disability are active users of virtual worlds (Babiss, 2009). In the context of people with lifelong disability, virtual worlds have been focused on for education (Elleven, Wircenski, Wircenski, & Nimon, 2006), rehabilitation (Standen & Brown, 2005; Stewart, Hansen, & Carey, 2010), and disability studies (McComas, Pivik, & Laflamme, 1998). Virtual worlds offer a safe environment for people with disability to practice skills that may include risks that are too great in the physical world (Standen & Brown, 2005). Research shows virtual worlds offer an environment in which three groups of rehabilitative interventions can be achieved: (1) promoting skills for independent living, (2) enhancing cognitive performance, and (3) improving social skills (Standen & Brown, 2005). In special education classrooms, virtual worlds offer a new opportunity for fieldtrips for students with disability (Smedley & Higgins, 2005). However, research concerning how this group uses and experience virtual worlds is still in an early stage. Thus, to contribute to the knowledge regarding how people with lifelong disability experience the opportunities and challenges offered by virtual worlds and provide a basis for the increased use of virtual worlds by people with lifelong disability, constitutes the main motivation for this PhD thesis. The thesis is exploratory in nature, due to the low level of knowledge on the subject of people with lifelong disability and their usage of virtual worlds. By applying various theoretical lenses and theoretically identified factors in the data analyses, the thesis builds upon the virtual world knowledge base. This is cross-disciplinary work with an information systems focus, in which both information systems research and disability research contribute to the knowledge base. From an information systems point of view, this thesis offers a new approach to knowledge about technology affordances. Information systems research tends to study how technology affects people without disability, which leads to assumptions about the nature of the abilities needed to utilize the affordances offered by technology. Thus, through this study we will gain a more nuanced understanding of virtual world affordances. In addition, the notion of affordances is of great interest in information systems research (Hsieh, 2012; Seidel & Recker, 2012; Zammuto et al., 2007), making this research timely and pertinent within the information system research community. In addition, viewing this topic from an information systems perspective, virtual worlds offer technological capabilities that people with disability may be able to utilize depending on their disability. Figuring out the use of assistive technology and the 2