View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Southern Queensland ePrints Legal Ethics, Volume 12, Part 1 ARTICLES The Lawyer as Parent: Sympathy, Care and Character in Lawyers’ Ethics Reid Mortensen* You urged me as a judge; but I had rather You would have bid me argue like a father. John of Gaunt: Richard II, I iii 237–8 I. A SOLICITOR, A FATHER AND A SEXUAL OFFENDER A. A Slip or Fall? Solicitor ‘X’—we cannot know his name1—was a senior associate in a Sydney law firm. X met a woman, B, in 1993, and they started dating. B already had four children. As his relationship with B became more settled, X gave her and the children financial support, and even met costs of the children’s education. By 1997, X had grown very close to the children. They trusted him, and called him ‘Dad’. And then, in April and May, he slipped. Some will call it a fall. * Professor of Law, University of Southern Queensland. I thank Christine Parker, Mike Robertson, Ian Leigh and Caroline Hart for comments on early drafts of this article, and Tony Gibbons, Chris Provis and Wendy Rogers of the Ethics Centre of South Australia and participants at a Legal Ethics Network seminar at the University of Melbourne for other suggestions about these ideas. All errors are my own. 1 Disclosure of the names of any person involved in these proceedings was prohibited by the Children (Criminal Proceedings) Act 1987 (NSW) s 11. The solicitor is referred to as ‘the opponent’ or ‘the appellant’ in the reports of the proceedings: Law Society of New South Wales v A Solicitor [2002] NSWCA 62 (‘A Solicitor I’); A Solicitor v Law Society of New South Wales(2003) 216 CLR 253 (High Court of Australia) (‘A Solicitor II’). 2 Reid Mortensen In early 1997, X lost his job in the law firm and learnt that his father was dying. He was depressed, although it is unclear whether this affected his thinking during the four incidents that almost destroyed this family. All related to two of the girls: R, aged 13; and L, aged 11. When he was alone with them in their bedroom, X touched their vaginas (without penetration), rubbed their buttocks and lifted their clothes. B learnt what had happened with R, and confronted X. While he denied that anything untoward had taken place, he agreed not to visit the girls’bedroom without B being present, and he sought psychiatric counselling. Later, government community services officers discovered that X had touched the girls, and interviewed him, B and the girls at their school. Apparently because he was worried that the children might be removed from B, X also attended a police station with his own lawyer in June, and confessed to the four incidents. He was subsequently charged with four counts of aggravated assault, and pleaded guilty to all of them. X was given three months’imprisonment, but on appeal the sentence was remitted to an unconditional good behaviour bond for three years. Throughout the criminal process, B and her father gave X moral support. At the time of the sentencing appeal, there was no evidence that R and L had been psychologically harmed by the incidents—although the judge admitted that there could be a belated effect. Indeed, all four daughters wanted X to continue in their lives as a father figure for them. The psychiatrist gave evidence that the likelihood of re-offending was minimal. In April 2000, X and B were married. All four children went to live with them. Things, though, seem not to have returned to normal for R. In 2000, X was arrested and charged with two more counts of aggravated assault against her. These charges related to incidents said to have taken place late in April 2000—after X’s marriage to B. In October 2000, after X had entered a plea of not guilty to the charges, he was convicted on both counts and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. However, on appeal, in April 2001, these convictions were quashed. X claimed that the charges made about the assaults on R in 2000 were false, and the judge’s findings on appeal were, at the least, ‘not inconsistent’with that.2 There is more to this case—reported as A Solicitor v Law Society of New South Wales3— including X’s deliberate policy of not advising any law firms to which he was applying for work of the charges or his convictions, and his failure to tell them or the New South Wales Law Society of the convictions of 2000 before they were quashed.4 In 2001, the Law Society sought to discipline X in the State’s Court of Appeal, submitting that, alongside the refusal to disclose them, his convictions and the underlying conduct evidenced character that was incompatible with the practice of law. Specifically, the conduct was ‘a most serious breach of trust on [X’s] part given the paternal like role he had with his victims’. X had such a ‘personally disgraceful character’,he was unfit to be a lawyer.5 2 A Solicitor I [2002] NSWCA 62, [24]. 3 [2002] NSWCA 62; (2003) 216 CLR 253. 4 A solicitor who had been convicted of an indictable offence could only work in legal practice if approval had been given by the Law Society. The solicitor also had to disclose any conviction for an indictable offence to an employing firm: Legal Profession Act 1987 (NSW) s 48K. 5 A Solicitor I [2002] NSWCA 62, [81]–[83]. The Lawyer as Parent: Sympathy, Care and Character in Lawyers’ Ethics 3 The Court of Appeal ordered that X be permanently removed from practice. In light of the convictions and lack of candour, his name was struck from the court’s roll of legal practitioners.6But an appeal to the High Court of Australia in 2004 was partly successful. The justices of the High Court did think that there was professional misconduct in this case, but they were less concerned about the implications of the convictions and did not think this meant that X was unfit to be a lawyer. Rather, they believed that a suspension from practice would have been sufficient discipline for X. Because of the Law Society’s complaints about him, X had been deterred from renewing his practising certificate for five years. He had therefore already effectively suffered suspension from practice. So the High Court set aside the Court of Appeal’s order for removal, and made no other order in its place.7 B. Parental Qualities in Legal Practice—The Courts’ Views The discipline in A Solicitor raises a significant moral inquiry about the importance of parental qualities to a lawyer’s character.8It is not the sexual element of X’s convictions that open this inquiry.9It is his parental role. Across the common law world, expulsion from the profession has been thought, more often than not, to be the only discipline possible for a lawyer convicted of a sexual offence.10In a small number of cases, though, lawyers in this 6 Ibid, [1], [112]–[114], [127]. 7 A Solicitor II(2003) 216 CLR 253, 275–6. 8 The High Court’s decision in A Solicitor received severe criticism in the Australian print media and on radio: LHaller, ‘Lawyers and the Third Dimension: A Solicitor v Council of the Law Society of New South Wales’ (2004) 23 University of Queensland Law Journal211. It also received scholarly criticism because the High Court discountedthe importance of traditional demands of unqualified candour about a lawyer’s criminal record: SLe Mire, ‘Striking Off: Criminal Lawyers and Disclosure of their Convictions’ (2005) 79 Australian Law Journal641, 647–8. 9 Haller (n8) 215–16. 10 Australia: Law Society of South Australia v Rodda (2002) 83 SASR 541 (Solicitor befriended a 12-year-old school girl who was waiting at a bus stop outside his office. Convictions for kissing the girl on the lips, putting his tongue into her mouth, and touching her breast). Canada: Re Cwinn and the Law Society of Upper Canada (1980) 108 DLR (3d) 381 (Ontario lawyer was convicted in the United States of sexual offences. He kept horse- riding stables and recruited teenage girls to ride in competitions, where he systematically seduced at least six girls, including two aged 14. The abuse of his position in ‘a relationship of dependence, trust and confidence’ (at 389) shattered his professional integrity and was conduct unbecoming a barrister and solicitor). United States:In re Jacobsen, 202 Cal 289; 260 P 294 (CA Sup Ct, 1927); In re Phillips, 17 Cal 2d 55; 109 P 2d 344 (CA Sup Ct, 1941) (Conviction of attorney for indecent exposure held to be an offence of moral turpitude justifying an order for disbarment); Florida Bar vMcKeever, 766 So 2d 992 (Fla Sup Ct, 2000) (Attorney convicted of five counts of aggravated child abuse, incidents involving severe beatings of naked boys. Disbarment was the only discipline remotely commensurate with respondent’s offences); In re Lesansky, 25 Cal 4th 11; 17 P 3d 764 (CA Sup Ct, 2001) (Attorney convicted of attempting to commit a lewd act on a child aged 14 or 15, an offence necessarily involving moral turpitude and requiring disbarment); Attorney Grievance Commission of Maryland v Thompson, 367 Md 315; 786 A 2d 763 (Md Ct App, 2001) (Attorney convicted of stalking, for making an improper sexual remark to a 13-year-old boy, speaking to the boy at a shopping mall, calling him one time on the phone, and appearing uninvited at the boy’s home. The attorney’s stalking undermined the court’s view of his trustworthiness and fitness as a lawyer, leading to an indefinite suspension). 4 Reid Mortensen position have not had their place in the profession permanently affected.11In one of them, the Visitors of Gray’s Inn only reprimanded a barrister who had been convicted and fined for loitering in a public toilet, where he had gestured to men in ways that suggested he had an interest in ‘immoral purposes’.12 The Visitors made a sharp distinction between misconduct in private and professional lives: thissexual misconduct not being relevant in deciding whether to exercise discipline.13 Even among these exceptional cases, A Solicitor raises a completely new issue. Unlike any previous discipline involving sexual offences, there was in X’s case an established, nurturing, domestic relationship between him and the girls. For three years, he had been ‘Dad’. The rubbing, touching and peering betrayed the parental responsibilities of trust, care and protection that he had taken on over that time. This may have been temporary, but it was as serious a betrayal of a child as is possible—matched, perhaps, only by violence.14An extended passage in the judgment of Justice Sheller in the Court of Appeal explains his anxiousness about X’s breach of trust. The breach of trust has two sides to it. A child relies on the integrity and trustworthiness of the adult who stands in the place of a father. Naturally that trust is absolute and unquestioning and was encouraged by [X] who sought the affection of the children. On the other hand, [X] standing in the place of a father assumed the obligation and responsibility of respecting and honouring that trust. In such a situation the child is by reason of her age and experience in life unprotected and vulnerable. By contrast [X’s] power was very great.15 X claimed that the incidents of 1997 were ‘out of character’,16but Justice Sheller thought that what seemed to have been good character to that point was lost by the man’s treatment of his ‘daughters’. It reflected poorly on his ‘inherent qualities’, and on his duty as a lawyer.17 Parental traits added to the shape of the character needed of lawyers, and were related to the lawyer’s ability to help in the effective delivery of legal justice. The solicitor’s duty is to be faithful to the oath of office, to the courts, to fellow practitioners and most importantly to the clients who may on occasion also be people who are vulnerable and 11 England: In re a Solicitor [1956] 1 WLR 1312 (Male solicitor convicted of indecent assault on a soldier in a sleeping compartment in a train, but thought not to be a serious case—‘assaults, not attempts at corruption’ (at 1314). Two year suspension).United States: In re Boyd, 48 Cal 2d 69; 307 P 2d 625 (CA Sup Ct, 1957) (Attorney convicted of vagrancy for engaging in homosexual acts in a public place was held to have committed an offence involving moral turpitude, and suspended from practice for three years); In re Safran, 18 Cal 3d 134; 554 P 2d 329 (CA Sup Ct, 1976) (Attorney convicted of indecently exposing himself to a child under 18 was suspended from practice for three years). 12 Re H (a Barrister) [1981] 1 WLR 1257. 13 Ibid, 1259. 14 Cf In re Walker, 597 NE 2d 1271 (Ind Sup Ct, 1992), where an attorney assaulted his girlfriend and her nine- year-old daughter. However, they were not cohabiting and there is no question of a parent-like relationship with the child. A 60 day suspension was ordered. 15 A Solicitor I [2002] NSWCA 62,[100]. 16 Ibid, [92]. 17 Ibid, [101]. The Lawyer as Parent: Sympathy, Care and Character in Lawyers’ Ethics 5 unprotected and who should be able confidently to expect that the solicitor will honour the obligation and responsibility imposed by the relationship of solicitor and client. The sworn duty is a public duty. The administration of justice depends in a large measure on the trust the courts and the public place in those who practise the law.18 Justice Sheller’s colleague in the Court of Appeal, Justice Giles, made the same connection. The incidents of 1998 did not take place when practising law, but‘were incompatible with the qualities of character and trustworthiness required of a member of his profession’.19 The High Court justices disagreed with the Court of Appeal’s assessment of X’s situation in two respects, both of which implicate the moral relevance of parental traits in lawyers’ ethics. The first was the identification of good character. Was an unprecedented and unrepeated, one-month period of illegal sexual assault enough to disprove that a man possessed good character? The justices thought not. More significance was placed on the fact that B forgave X, the support of character witnesses, the isolated quality of the offences, and the exceptional circumstances of the whole episode.20 The second difference was that the High Court did not see any connection whatsoever between the character required of a good parent and the character required of a lawyer. It is true that the conduct involved a form of breach of trust, being the trust reposed by the mother of the children … and the children themselves. However, the nature of the trust, and the circumstances of the breach, were so remote from anything to do with professional practicethat the characterisation of [X’s] personal misconduct as professional misconduct was erroneous.21 The justices could have let the decision turn exclusively on X’s extraordinary circumstances. But they didnot. The nature of the trust required of a father was not the trust required of a lawyer; a father’s treatment of his children could not reveal anything of the character needed also in legal practice. The High Court therefore reached the same conclusion as the Visitors of Gray’s Inn. When considering the discipline of a lawyer, some aspects of personal conduct are unrelated to the lawyer’s role.22This mutual exclusion of aspects of the professional role and personal morality will be questioned later. But even if it is possible to insulate the lawyer’s role from some kinds of sexual conduct, the Visitors were dealing with a lawyer who gestured to complete strangers in a public toilet. The High Court was dealing with abuse in a longstanding domestic relationship. Ifthis kind of distinction between the personal and professional can be made, the implications of making that distinction in the familial circumstances of A Solicitor are quite different to those faced by the Visitors of Gray’s Inn. 18 Ibid, [101]. 19 Ibid, [118]. 20 A Solicitor II (2004) 216 CLR 253, 274–5. 21 Ibid, 274 (emphasis added). 22 Re H (a Barrister) [1981] 1 WLR 1257, 1259. 6 Reid Mortensen C. Outlining the Argument A Solicitor shows senior courts, deliberating on the point at length, reaching opposite conclusions as to the place of parentalism in lawyers’ethics. The High Court of Australia found that parental qualities had no place in judging someone’s qualification for legal practice. The NSW Court of Appeal disagreed. This disagreement is an important one. Although both courts claimed to be making traditional judgments about character, they disagreed over the extent to which the lawyer’s life could be seen as a unified whole. The different conclusions they reached about the relevance of parental qualities made all of the difference to the place of solicitor X in the profession. I argue that parent-like qualities are at the centre of good character for a lawyer because ‘the parental’ as a metaphor for legal practice highlights the importance of sympathy or care in lawyers’ ethics. However, it should be understood as one personal trait within a scheme of other traits and virtues—especially justice and judgment—and not treated as a supreme co-ordinating value. The parental metaphor should not be pressed too far. In the next section (II), Iintroduce the idea of ‘the parental’. This centres on Thomas Shaffer’s account of parentalism within his Christian ethics of care for legal practice, but develops and presents a critique of Shaffer’s approach. Although Shaffer’s work has been especially indebted to the neo-Aristotelian philosophies and theologies of Alasdair MacIntyre and Stanley Hauerwas, his ethics of care contradicts basic themes of both scholars’ work. I, too, wish to put lawyers’ ethics on the ground developed by MacIntyre and Hauerwas, as well as by Anthony Kronman and Charles Fried, but without Shaffer’s inclination towards relativism and without the confidence that a religious ethics can be as useful for the nonreligious lawyer as Shaffer suggests. The critique in this section leads to section III’s argument that parental qualities of care, sympathy and trust have a place inside a stronger conception of lawyers’ character. Part IV concludes with observations on the suitability of the parental metaphor, at least as a partial picture of the lawyer’s role, and arguments for considering it a better metaphor for the moral qualities of lawyers than others—such as Fried’s idea of ‘lawyer as friend’. II. THE PARENTAL IN LAWYERS’ ETHICS Elizabeth Anderson describes parental qualities as both trusts and commitments. ‘Parents’ rights over their children are trusts, which they must exercise for the sake of the children.’ Parental love is an ‘unconditional commitment to nurture one’s child by providing her with the care, affection and guidance she needs to develop her capacity to maturity’.23 The language of trusts, and of trustees, is familiar to legal practice, and is prominent in the Court of Appeal’s account of parental qualities in A Solicitor. These trusts should constrain how a parent guides his child. Still, it is not immediately self-evident that parental trust is a natural 23 E Anderson, Value in Ethics and Economics (Harvard University Press, 1993) 170. The Lawyer as Parent: Sympathy, Care and Character in Lawyers’ Ethics 7 metaphor for the qualities of trusteeship that we look for in lawyers, and parental commitments seem an even stranger fit for legal practice. Initially, it seems that the High Court’s exclusion of parental qualities from questions of legal practice could have a foothold. A. Shaffer: The Parental as a Christian Ethic A closer look, nevertheless, suggests a place for both parental trusts and commitments as traits of good lawyers. In what is a most influential philosophical contribution to lawyers’ ethics,24 Thomas Shaffer introduced the idea of parentalism, and especially its affective commitments, into moral thinking about legal practice. Shaffer ventured to describe professional standards as ‘parent-like’ or ‘parentalistic’—synonyms for ‘fatherly’ and ‘motherly’, or ‘paternalistic’ and ‘maternalistic’.25 His immediate concern was that ‘paternalism’was unfairly regarded in professional ethics as a ‘bad word’.26Shaffer suggested that we cannot understand the root term pater or father as a bad word: ‘it cannot be’, and ‘[w]riters on professionalism erred in thinking otherwise’.27 Shaffer’s idea of the parental is both descriptive and normative. It describes a truth, a fact or a ‘given’that must be accepted as a ‘cultural deposit’.28That fact—broadly conceived as the ‘family’or parents within the family—is a moral resource that can be used in professional life, and whichcan help to shape professional behaviour.29In short, a professional ethic that is based on the isolated individual, ‘a parentless moral agent’, is a false way to describe the moral world that lawyers live in.30 Shaffer’s parentalism is grounded in a broad Judeo-Christian perspective. He draws on the biblical anthropomorphism of God as father, the centrality of families in God’s dealings with Israel and the church, a Pauline view (in I Corinthians at least) of the indissolubility of marriage, and the idea of the church as a family.31Shaffer has certainly been most prominent 24 D Luban (ed), The Ethics of Lawyers(Dartmouth, 1994) xii. 25 TL Shaffer, ‘The Legal Ethics of Radical Individualism’ (1987) 65 Texas Law Review 963, 987 (‘Radical Individualism’). For an argument that the term ‘nurturing’ (which is an aspect of Anderson’s definition) is preferable to ‘parenting’, see SR Paterson, ‘Against “Parenting”’ in J Trebilcot (ed), Mothering: Essays in Feminist Theory(Rowman and Allanheld, 1984) 62, 68. 26 Radical Individualism(n25) 986. 27 Ibid, 987. Cf TL Shaffer, On Being a Christian and a Lawyer: Law for the Innocent (Brigham Young University Press, 1981) 33 (‘A Christian and a Lawyer’), where Shaffer claimed that an ethics of care did not tolerate paternalism. However, this was referring to paternalism as the controlling perspective for the lawyer’s moral role, rather than involving a moral conversation between lawyer and client. It is arguably compatible with the view taken in Radical Individualism(n25). 28 Radical Individualism(n25) 987, 988. 29 Ibid, 987. 30 Ibid, 987. See also A MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory(Duckworth, 2nd edn1985) 56–59, 84 (‘After Virtue’). 31 Radical Individualism(n25) 986, 987–8.There are profound theological and empirical problems with this justification. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, has pointed out that the appeal to ‘family’ in one historically contingent form rather than another ‘is always to select, prefer … not to utter what everyone knows’: R Williams, On Christian Theology (Blackwell, 2000) 228. Unlike Shaffer, Williams does not endorse the moral value of ‘family’ in the abstract, without reference to the quality of relationships in this particular family or that: ibid, 233, 237. 8 Reid Mortensen in the contemporary development of applied Christian ethics in legal practice.32However, Shaffer also argues for parentalism in lawyers’ ethics on the basis of alternative accounts of the religious significance of families for American lawyers. The first of these—which I will call the argument of culture—takes aspects of the surrounding religious inheritance as ‘cultural deposits’for lawyers,33and therefore assumes the relevance of the religious tradition independently of any individual lawyer’s faith.It does not require the lawyer to be a believer. The cultural deposit of Judeo-Christian religious views amounts to a moral fact that even unbelievers must take into account if they are to understand the social settings in which people around them act and make decisions. ‘Failing to take account of the tradition is therefore failing to be truthful.’34 Even if the lawyer did not consciously adhere to the tradition, subconsciously it still influences the lawyer’s behaviour and gives silent moral direction.35This is ‘the religious tradition in ordinary, Wednesday-afternoon law practice’.36 Shaffer suggests that the argument of culture is both a contribution to the dominant liberal ethics of the legal profession and a corrective to its ‘radical individualism’.37 The argument of culture is too ambitious a basis for the parental in lawyers’ ethics, especially if it is understood in the light of Shaffer’s debt to MacIntyre’s notion of ‘tradition’. Shaffer has commonly claimed to draw on the work of Alasdair MacIntyre—especially After Virtue—and did so in developing his idea of the parental in lawyers’ ethics.38He has also appealed to the Protestant virtue ethicist Stanley Hauerwas, who in turn is also considerably indebted to MacIntyre.39Admittedly, although Shaffer uses the term ‘tradition’, he does not explicitly claim a connection with MacIntyre in his argument of culture. But nevertheless Shaffer’s argument of culture performs exactly the same role in Shaffer’s argument for an ethics of care as MacIntyre’s idea of ‘tradition’ does in shaping a community’s virtues.40 32 For a sample, see A Christian and a Lawyer(n27); TL Shaffer, Faith and the Professions(Brigham Young University Press, 1987) (‘Faith and the Professions’); ‘Faith Tends to Subvert Legal Order’ (1998) 66 Fordham Law Review1089 (‘Subversion’); ‘Should a Christian Lawyer Sign Up for Simon’s Practice of Justice?’ (1999) 51 Stanford Law Review903 (‘Signing Up’); ‘Lawyers and the Biblical Prophets’ (2003) 17 Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy521. 33 Radical Individualism(n 25) 988. 34 Ibid, 988. 35 Ibid, 988. 36 Ibid, 990. 37 Ibid, 989. 38 For a sample, see TL Shaffer, ‘The Moral Theology of Atticus Finch’ (1981) 42 University of Pittsburgh Law Review181, 212 (‘Atticus Finch’); ‘The Gentleman in Professional Ethics’ (1985) 10 Queen’s Law Journal1, 4, 7, 16 (‘Gentleman’); Radical Individualism(n 25) 964n, 965n, 983n; A Christian and a Lawyer(n 27) 240–1; Faith and the Professions(n 32) 19, 296; ‘On Lying for Clients’ (1996) 71 Notre Dame Law Review 195, 197, 205 (‘Lying’); Signing Up(n 32) 903, 907n, 912n; TL Shaffer and JB Meister, ‘Is this Appropriate?’ (1997) 46 Duke Law Journal781, 803n. 39 For a sample, see TL Shaffer, ‘Serving the Guilty’ (1980) 26 Loyola Law Review71, 85; Atticus Finch(n 38) 182, 188–90, 196–7, 214, 216; Radical Individualism(n 25) 965, 967 989; A Christian and a Lawyer(n 27) 56, 84, 123, 138, 174–5, 189–207, 223, 240; Faith and the Professions(n 32) 35, 290–3, 305–6; Lying(n 38) 197, 205; TLShaffer (with M Shaffer), American Communities and their Lawyers(University of Notre Dame Press, 1991) xi. 40 See After Virtue(n 30) 221–5; A MacIntyre, Whose Justice, Which Rationality (University of Notre Dame Press, 1988) 326–88 (‘Whose Justice’); Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (University of Notre Dame Press, 1990) (‘Three Rival Versions’). The Lawyer as Parent: Sympathy, Care and Character in Lawyers’ Ethics 9 MacIntyre’s idea of tradition has shifted over time, but began as ‘an historically extended, socially embodied argument, and an argument precisely in part about the goods that constitute that tradition’.41The embodiment of tradition, nevertheless, takes place in groups that are better described as communities than as whole societies. It is in communities that we find greater moral cohesion and the practices that embody the goods of the tradition.42 MacIntyre therefore names southern black or white Protestant communities in the United States as examples of groups that represent distinctive traditions.43The location for a social (or ‘cultural’) standpoint for Shaffer’s particular concept of family is therefore more likely to be found in a religious community, which habituates believers into the thinking and practices that embody this concept, than in society-as-a-whole. The unbelieving lawyer would therefore need a broader rationale for the parental than is provided by Shaffer’s argument of culture before she could accept it as having a place in the way she reasons through the problems of ordinary Wednesday-afternoon practice. This naturally limits the claims of Shaffer’s theory, as it does for any religious ethics which takes the moral pluralism of contemporary western legal professions seriously. Indeed, Shaffer’s second argument for the religious significance of families—the argument of a faith community—is more compatible with MacIntyre’s and other neo- Aristotelian accounts of the virtues. In this case the lawyer is a believer, and the cultural deposit of the religious tradition held and sustained within smaller communities of synagogue and church, is more intense, and explicit.44But thefaith community’s tradition does not make a contribution to liberal democracy. It is rather a confrontation with, and a ‘radical alternative’to, the dominant liberal ethics of the legal profession.45 In this article, I have no plan to replace Shaffer’s argument of culture with another claim to a comprehensive rationale for the parental. So, I will just acknowledge, and bypass, the problem of the more limited reach of a Christian ethics. That does not necessarily make the argument of a faith community for the parental completely irrelevant or unpersuasive for the nonreligious lawyer. Antagonists have described Shaffer’s Christian ethics as undesirable and ‘impossible to admire’. But they have also thought that his willingness to use an unpopular God-talk showed ‘admirable courage’,46and that it gave points of consensus that reinforce secular ethical arguments.47This will be especially so for virtue-based arguments. There may yet be moral resources for the secular lawyer in the account that follows. 41 After Virtue(n 30) 222. 42 This is also why, despite his denials, MacIntyre is often dubbed a communitarian: cf A MacIntyre, ‘The Spectre of Communitarianism’ (1995) 70 Radical Philosophy34; ‘I’m not a Communitarian, But …’ (1991) 1 The Responsive Community91. 43 After Virtue(n 30) 252. 44 Radical Individualism(n 25) 989–90. 45 Ibid, 989. 46 M Ashe, ‘“Bad Mothers”, “Good Lawyers”, and “Legal Ethics”’ (1993) 81 Georgetown Law Journal2533, 2544. 47 Ibid, 2550, 2555. 10 Reid Mortensen B. Parentalism as Sympathy According to Shaffer, professional legal practice should be parental. In a general sense, then, this means that the lawyer should feel as a mother or father feels. Specifically,the lawyer should have sympathy.48It is at this point that Shaffer suggests that the idea of lawyer as parent raises useful traits for lawyers. Attempting to put this idea in context, he uses Stanley Kaplan’s Case of the Unwanted Will—an ethical quandary posed to lawyers in the American Bar Association Journal.49 The Unwanted Will appears to be hypothetical, but is a not unrealistic example of the common practice scenario of a lawyer instructed to draw mutual wills for a married couple. John and Mary Smith want to sign wills before going on an overseas holiday. As John has instructed, the lawyer draws two wills making identical gifts. The Smiths then visit the lawyer to sign the wills. After John has signed his, the lawyer asks him to leave the room so that the lawyer can speak with Mary alone before she signs her will. John withdraws. The lawyer asks Mary whether this is how she would want her estate distributed if John had not been present and the terms of the gifts were kept secret from him. She replies no. She would deal with the property differently if the will could be kept secret from John. However, she is also unwilling to cause domestic discord by making a will that John knows differs from his wishes.50 Kaplan takes The Unwanted Will a little further, but Shaffer leaves it at that point. Even there, the lawyer has made problems for himself and the Smiths.51First, he cannot allow Mary to sign the will he has prepared. It does not reflect her true testamentary intent. Secondly, John has signed a will on the assumption that Mary’s is going to mirror it. That assumption is incorrect, and the lawyer cannot allow John to go on the holiday without letting him know. Thirdly, John has signed the will on the assumption of Mary’s mutual will and, equally, the lawyer cannot therefore arrange for Mary to sign a different will that accords with her own intentions.52Fourthly, but less explicitly in Shaffer’s analysis,53the lawyer owes Mary a duty of confidentiality. Unless she wants the lawyer to tell John of her true intention (and she does not), he can only address the second problem by breaking his legal duty of confidentiality to Mary.54 48 Radical Individualism(n 25) 986–7. 49 S Kaplan, ‘The Case of the Unwanted Will’ (1979) 65 American Bar Association Journal484. 50 Ibid.Shaffer’s version of The Unwanted Will differs slightly, but in no material respect: Radical Individualism (n25) 968–9. 51 The legal duties implicated in this dilemma are thoroughly addressed in TS Collett, ‘Disclosure, Discretion, or Deception: The Estate Planner’s Ethical Dilemma from a Unilateral Confidence’ (1994) 28 Real Property, Probate and Trust Journal683. 52 Radical Individualism(n 25) 969; Collett (n 51) 703, 704, 740. 53 This may have implications for Shaffer’s suggested approach to The Unwanted Will. In Radical Individualism, where the duty of confidentiality owed to Mary is not addressed, he concludes that withdrawal from representation is immoral: see accompanying text at n 67. Later, when the issue of Mary’s confidences was raised with him, Shaffer seems to have accepted that silent withdrawal from representation might be best: see Collett (n 51) 738. 54 In Kaplan’s original Unwanted Will—(1) the lawyer advises Mary to sign the will he has prepared, but also (2) advises Mary to see another lawyer who (without any duties to John) can prepare a will that more accurately