Toward an Equitable Agrarian Commonwealth: Race and the Agrarian Tradition in the Works of Wendell Berry, Allen Tate, and Jean Toomer A thesis presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Eric D. Earnhardt June 2011  Eric D. Earnhardt. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled Toward an Equitable Agrarian Commonwealth: Race and the Agrarian Tradition in the Works of Wendell Berry, Allen Tate, and Jean Toomer by ERIC D. EARNHARDT has been approved for the Department of English Language & Literature and the College of Arts and Sciences by ______________________________________________ Amritjit Singh Professor of English _______________________________________________ Benjamin M. Ogles Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 ABSTRACT EARNHARDT, ERIC D., M.A., June 2011, English Toward an Equitable Agrarian Commonwealth: Race and the Agrarian Tradition in the Works of Wendell Berry, Allen Tate, and Jean Toomer (75 pp.) Director of Thesis: Amritjit Singh The concept of commonweal broadly refers both to the welfare of the public and to the equitable distribution of power and wealth. Thus, the formation of a commonwealth has been a significant part of the American dream, especially in its formulation by Thomas Jefferson and his agrarian vision of a landed, independent, educated citizenry. The inherent contradiction with this model in the United States, however, has always been the exploitation of certain members of the public. The welfare of African slaves was not taken into account and their freedom and humanity were consistently undermined. This essay explores three literary figures of the twentieth century in order to trace how an agrarian vision of democracy manifests itself today. The representations of agrarianism by Jean Toomer in Cane (1923) and by the Southern Agrarian Allen Tate in his essays, “Religion and the Old South” (1930) and “The Profession of Letters in the South” (1935), can be viewed as parallel streams running in similar directions and with contiguous goals, though never meeting or allowing mutual influence. Today, The Hidden Wound (1970) by neo-agrarian writer Wendell Berry may be viewed as a flood bringing the two streams, two conversations, together through an honest exploration of the culture of racism that kept them so utterly separate. Issuing from this confluence of parallel perspectives is a new course: an agrarianism that 4 proceeds from a stance of racial equality, of cooperation grounded in ecological and economic limits, and of pursuit of the realization of commonwealth. Approved: ______________________________________________________________ Amritjit Singh Professor of English 5 To Amber Leasure-Earnhardt 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to extend my sincerest appreciation to my thesis committee for their enthusiasm, diligence, and guidance: to the director, Professor Amritjit Singh, and to the two readers, Dr. Marilyn Atlas and Dr. Albert Rouzie. To the helpful staff of the English Department at Ohio University and Alden Library, and especially for the friendship and direction of Dr. Marsha Dutton: many thanks. To those others who read all or portions of this essay or listened to me talk about it, thank you: David Armstrong, Elise Auvil, Dustin Faulstick, Dr. Gary Halcomb, Ryan Kelly, Samantha Mudd, Bridget Tetteh-Batsa, and Adam Wroblewski. I am sincerely grateful to my parents, Lee and Michelle Earnhardt, for their generous support and prayer; and I am similarly appreciative of my second set of parents, the Leasures, for their assistance and encouragement. Most of all, I give special thanks to my wife Amber, whose love, steadfastness and faith make everything I do possible. Thanks for somehow working full-time and watching our beautiful son Lochlann while I worked on this essay. Finally, I would like to thank Wendell Berry for his exquisite writing, for his careful thinking, and for his respectful response to a young student’s letter in which he said exactly what I needed to hear: keep reading, and read closely. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………3 Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………6 Preface……………………………………………………………………………………..8 Chapter I: Introduction…………………………………………………………………...11 Chapter II: Two Streams of Modernism: Toomer, Tate, and Agrarian Discourses of Race………………………………………………………………………………………19 Chapter III: Convergence: A Literature of the Wounded and Marx in the Mix…………34 Chapter IV: A New Way: Neo-Agrarianism, Environmental Justice and Literature……58 Chapter V: Conclusion: Toward an Equitable Agrarian Commonwealth…………….....68 References………………………………………………………………………………..71 8 PREFACE It is perhaps difficult to define agrarianism in the twenty-first century. As a state of being, it seems to have been, at one point or another, historically relegated to societies now popularly regarded as primitive. As an adjective, agrarian has simply signified a definitive relationship to agriculture, especially, perhaps, agriculture on a small scale. Agribusiness moguls and workers are less likely to call themselves agrarian because, in terms of the “agrarian versus industrial” paradigm that goes back at least to the early years of the twentieth century, modern agriculture fits more neatly into the industrial slot, with its heavy use of petro-chemicals and industrial equipment. As a political philosophy, agrarianism, at least since the Enlightenment and the writings of Thomas Jefferson, has posited a belief in the distribution of landed property for independent agricultural purposes, and been directed by a view for long-term use as a social ideal or standard. It is to this meaning of agrarianism that I refer throughout this essay. Today, agrarianism is likely to evoke two opposing ideas. One is the idea of the pastoral-georgic fantasy many Americans embrace as somehow native and comforting, a vision held against that of the dirty and immoral life of the city. This is surely why pictures of small family farms appear on packaged foods that are nevertheless grown in indoor factories and/or using massive amounts of chemicals and fossil fuels subsidized by the federal government. The other idea evoked by agrarianism today, held simultaneously and in tension with the other pastoral fantasy, marks rural life and farmers as culturally and technologically backward, racist, unsophisticated, ultra-conservative, base, “hicks”— marginally civilized and marginally human. The unfortunate irony of these visions, which amount to the settled concept that for every practical purpose a serious agrarianism is 9 simply passé in the age of the machine, is that they belie what has in fact been a broad political and cultural engagement with agrarian ideas throughout U. S. history, including today. In the literature of the twentieth century, in fact, agrarianism finally begins to reckon with the most serious complication of the “agrarian versus industrial” paradigm: the two systems’ mutual dependence upon the labor of enslaved peoples. Whether they are self-consciously agrarian or industrial apologists or neither, careful writers and critics of twentieth-century literature have not placed the onus of the exploitation of slave-labor solely on either the agrarian or industrial systems. Though chattel slavery is not the same as wage slavery, their effects often differ in degree, not in kind. While white men in the South enslaved African blacks in order to impose a dehumanizing feudal system in the service of a “gentleman planter” aristocracy, white men in the North attracted black laborers—as well as Asian, Chicano/a, German, Irish, and Italian laborers—with false promises of stable wages and prosperity, only to deliver a similarly inhuman system characterized by slums and unlivable wages in the service of a different aristocracy, that of the “robber barons.” Recognizing the flimsiness of the modern-day conception of agrarian life and philosophy as somehow inherently and uniquely exploitative, this essay will trace the various visions of agrarianism in the imaginations and literary productions of three important American literary figures of the twentieth century: Jean Toomer, Allen Tate, and Wendell Berry. Broadly speaking, the representations of agrarianism by Toomer in Cane and his other writings, and by Tate in his essays, can be viewed as parallel streams running in similar directions and with contiguous goals, though never meeting, and never allowing mutual influence. By the same broad standard, Berry’s agrarianism in The 10 Hidden Wound can be viewed as a flood bringing the two streams, two conversations, together. The catalyst for this convergence, of course, is an honest exploration of the issue that kept the two conversations so utterly separate: racism. Issuing from this confluence of parallel perspectives, initiated by Berry’s exploration of race as it relates to agrarian philosophy, is a new course: a channel of neo-agrarianism that proceeds from a stance of racial equality and cooperation. With a steadfast cognizance of real ecological and economic limits, and in pursuit of a robust ethic of sustainability that takes the health of the land as a standard for the health of a culture, Berry’s new agrarian standard combines Jeffersonian ideals with modern environmental and racial awareness. It is a vision in pursuit of a longstanding American dream, the realization of a commonwealth.