CONTENTS i Vector control Methods for use by individuals and communities Prepared by Jan A. Rozendaal World Health Organization Geneva 1997 ii CONTENTS WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Vector control : methods for use by individuals and communities / prepared by Jan A. Rozendaal. 1.Insect control — methods 2.Pest control — methods 3.Disease vectors 4.Manuals I.Rozendaal, Jan Arie ISBN 92 4 154494 5 (NLM Classification: QX 600) The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions and reprints and translations already available. © World Health Organization 1997 Illustrations © Lois Robertson, unless otherwise specified. 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TYPESET IN HONG KONG PRINTED IN ENGLAND 94/10136—Best-set / Alden Press—7500 CONTENTS iii Contents Foreword ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xi Introduction 1 History and background of vector control 1 Alternatives to the use of insecticides 1 Reorganization of vector control 2 Vector control at community level 2 Selecting the appropriate control measures 2 Self-protection 3 Community control 3 Chapter 1 Mosquitos and other biting Diptera Biology 7 Distinguishing features of biting Diptera 7 Mosquitos 10 Blackflies 17 Sandflies 20 Biting midges 21 Horseflies and deerflies (tabanids) 22 Stable flies 24 Public health importance 24 Nuisance 24 Malaria 25 Lymphatic filariasis 29 Mosquito-borne viral diseases 33 Onchocerciasis (river blindness) 41 Leishmaniasis 45 Mansonellosis 51 Loiasis 52 Tularaemia 52 Control measures 52 Selecting the most appropriate control measures 52 Personal protection 54 Repellents 54 Protective clothing 59 Insecticide vaporizers 63 Protection measures in hammocks 71 Suggestions for protection in the absence of a mosquito net 72 Mosquito nets 73 Treating fabrics with an insecticide 85 iv CONTENTS Insecticides 85 Optimal combination of mosquito net materials and pyrethroids 87 Recommended dosages 87 Safety measures 88 Safety of treated nets 88 How to prepare the appropriate solution and treat and dry the fabric 88 When to re-treat 95 Disposal of insecticide 98 Making houses and shelters insect-proof 98 House design 99 Anti-mosquito screening 99 Protection measures for tents 103 Treated sheeting for temporary shelters 104 Avoidance and diversion of biting Diptera 105 Avoidance 105 Diversion to animals 105 Insecticide spraying 106 Insecticide spraying of walls 106 Space-spraying with insecticides 110 Prevention of breeding 112 Source reduction 113 Biological control 122 Larvicides 128 Habitats in and around houses 137 Habitats in the field 155 References 164 Selected further reading 176 Slide sets for training in vector biology and control 177 Chapter 2 Tsetse flies Biology 178 Life cycle 178 Resting places 178 Food 180 Public health importance 180 Sleeping sickness 180 Control measures 185 Traps and insecticide-impregnated screens 185 Mode of action and design 185 Models of traps and screens 186 Placement 189 Maintenance 195 Assembly 195 Impregnation 203 Insecticide spraying 206 Ground spraying 206 Aerial spraying 208 References 208 CONTENTS v Chapter 3 Triatomine bugs Biology 210 Life cycle 210 Behaviour 210 Resting places 210 Public health importance 213 Nuisance 213 Chagas disease 213 Control measures 216 Application of insecticides to house walls 217 Insecticides 218 Slow-release formulations (insecticidal paints) 218 Determination of residual activity 221 House improvement 222 Existing houses 222 New houses 226 Improvement of the peridomestic environment 228 Impregnated mosquito nets 228 Fumigant canisters 230 Use 230 Safety 232 Surveillance 232 Surveillance methods 232 References 235 Chapter 4 Bedbugs, fleas, lice, ticks and mites Bedbugs 237 Biology 237 Dispersal 238 Public health importance 239 Control measures 239 Detection 239 Repellents 239 Simple household measures 239 Impregnated mosquito nets 240 Smoke generators 240 Residual insecticides 241 Fleas 243 Biology 243 Behaviour 244 Public health importance 245 Nuisance 245 Plague 245 Flea-borne typhus 246 Other diseases 246 Control measures 246 Fleas as a nuisance 247 Fleas that transmit diseases 249 Sand fleas or jigger fleas 251 Biology 251 Public health importance 251 vi CONTENTS Lice 253 Biology 254 Body lice 255 Head lice 255 Crab or pubic lice 255 Public health importance 257 Nuisance 257 Louse-borne typhus fever 257 Louse-borne relapsing fever 258 Trench fever 258 Control measures 259 Head lice 259 Crab or pubic lice 261 Body lice 262 Ticks 263 Biology 263 Soft ticks 264 Hard ticks 265 Public health importance 268 Nuisance 268 Tick-borne relapsing fever 268 Tick paralysis 268 Tick-borne rickettsial fevers 268 Lyme disease 269 Tularaemia 270 Tick-borne viral encephalitides 271 Other viral diseases 272 Control measures 272 Self-protection 272 Community protection 274 Mites 275 Biting mites 276 Biology 276 Public health importance 277 Control measures 278 Scabies mite 279 Biology 279 Public health importance 280 House dust mite 282 Prevention and control 282 References 283 Chapter 5 Cockroaches Biology 288 Life cycle 288 Behaviour 290 Dispersal 291 Public health importance 291 Nuisance 291 Diseases 291 CONTENTS vii Control measures 292 Environmental management 293 Cleanliness and hygiene 293 Reduction of accessibility 293 Chemical control 293 Resistance 294 Application 294 Baits and traps 299 Repellents 300 References 300 Chapter 6 Houseflies Biology 302 Life cycle 302 Food 302 Breeding sites 304 Ecology of adult flies 305 Public health importance 306 Nuisance 306 Diseases 306 Control measures 308 Improvement of environmental sanitation and hygiene 308 Reduction or elimination of fly breeding sites 308 Reduction of sources that attract flies from other areas 310 Prevention of contact between flies and disease-causing germs 311 Protection of food, eating utensils and people from contact with flies 311 Methods of killing flies directly 312 Physical methods 312 Chemical methods 314 Reference 323 Selected further reading 323 Chapter 7 Cyclops Biology 324 Public health importance 324 Guinea-worm disease 324 Control measures 332 Prevention of patient–water contact 332 Installation of safe drinking-water supplies 332 Filtration of drinking-water 332 Chemical control 334 Boiling of drinking-water 336 References 336 Chapter 8 Freshwater snails Biology 337 Life cycle 337 Ecology 338 Public health importance 340 viii CONTENTS Schistosomiasis 340 Foodborne trematode infections 348 Control measures 350 Avoidance of contact with snail-infested waters 350 Improved sanitation 350 Snail control 350 Environmental management 352 Removal and destruction 352 Biological control 353 Chemical control 353 References 356 Selected further reading 356 Chapter 9 House-spraying with residual insecticides Problems with house-spraying in malaria control programmes 357 Organization of spraying 358 Insecticides for residual spraying 359 Characteristics of good residual insecticides 360 Resistance 360 Formulations 360 Dosages and cycles 362 Type of sprayed surface 363 Commonly used insecticides 363 Preparation of insecticide suspension 366 Manually operated sprayers 367 Compression sprayers 369 Spraying operations 381 Where to spray 381 When to spray 381 References 383 Selected further reading 384 Chapter 10 Safe use of pesticides Precautions 385 The label 385 Storage and transport 385 Disposal 385 General hygiene 388 Protective clothing 389 Safe techniques 391 Emergency measures 393 Signs and symptoms of poisoning 393 First-aid treatment 394 Further treatment 397 References 397 Selected further reading 397 Index 398 CONTENTS ix Foreword The development and production of this manual have been an enormous task. Relevant information has been assembled on the control of disease vectors, reser- voir species and household pests with the specific objective of providing practical guidance to non-professionals. The target species addressed in this book and the control methods described have been selected for an audience of individuals and communities whose potential contribution to vector control is considerable, but may be restricted by factors such as lack of financial resources and limited educa- tion. The decision-making structure of the community and control activities undertaken by local health services are also important in determining which control methods are appropriate. Most of the research, data collection and field visits needed for this book were carried out by Dr Jan A. Rozendaal between 1988 and 1991. The resulting draft manuscript was then reviewed by various specialists in vector-borne disease con- trol, who made a number of suggestions for changes to the text. In preparing the final manuscript, Dr Rozendaal has incorporated information on new develop- ments in vector control to ensure that the text is as up to date as possible. This book is particularly timely, since it appears as vector control is coming to depend less on large-scale control programmes organized by governments and more on community participation at the local level. In addition, it is now clear that many of the traditional methods used to prevent and control vector-borne and other infectious diseases are either incorrectly applied or no longer effective. Under the combined pressures of economic development, environmental and demographic changes, and increasing human migration, diseases are reappearing in new environments or are re-emerging in more virulent forms. Many of the agents of these diseases have become resistant to commonly used drugs or their vectors have developed resistance to pesticides. The methods described in this book, especially those directed at permanent modifications of housing and other components of the living environment, will help to prevent and control these diseases, which hinder economic progress and affect the well-being of populations in many parts of the world. Dr K. Behbehani Director, Division of Control of Tropical Diseases x CONTENTS