VAPOR GENERATION TECHNIQUES FOR TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS VAPOR GENERATION TECHNIQUES FOR TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS Edited by A D’U LESSANDRO LIVO CNR,InstituteofChemistryofOrganometallicCompounds,Pisa,Italy R E. S ALPH TURGEON InorganicChemistryGroup,Metrology,NationalResearchCouncilCanada, Ottawa,ON,Canada Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates Copyright©2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 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ISBN:978-0-323-85834-2 ForInformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:SusanDennis AcquisitionsEditor:KathrynEryilmaz EditorialProjectManager:IvyDawnTorre ProductionProjectManager:R.VijayBharath CoverDesigner:MarkRogers TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India List of contributors Eduardo Bolea Group of Analytical Spectroscopy and Sensors (GEAS), Institute of Environmental Sciences (IUCA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza,Spain Sebastian Burhenn Experimental Physics II, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum,Germany Alessandro D’Ulivo CNR, Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds,Pisa,Italy Jirˇı´ Deˇdina Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences,Brno,CzechRepublic Alessandro D’Ulivo CNR, Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds,Pisa,Italy Zuzana Gajdosechova National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada Xiandeng Hou Analytical & Testing Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P.R. China; Key Lab of Green Chem & Tech of MOE at College of Chemistry,SichuanUniversity,Chengdu,P.R.China Jan Kratzer Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Brno,CzechRepublic Francisco Laborda Group of Analytical Spectroscopy and Sensors (GEAS), Institute of Environmental Sciences (IUCA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza,Spain Xing Liu State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, ChinaUniversityofGeosciences(Wuhan),Wuhan,P.R.China YueLiu CollegeofChemistry,TianjinNormalUniversity,Tianjin,P.R.China Toma´sˇ Matousˇek Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences,Brno,CzechRepublic Stanislav Musil Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences,Brno,CzechRepublic EneaPagliano NationalResearchCouncilCanada,Ottawa,ON,Canada Ralph E. Sturgeon Inorganic Chemistry Group, National Research Council Canada,Metrology,Ottawa,ON,Canada XiaodongWen CollegeofPharmacy,DaliUniversity,Dali,P.R.China Yafei Zhen Analytical & Testing Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, P.R. China ix x Listofcontributors Chengbin Zheng Key Lab of Green Chem & Tech of MOE at College of Chemistry,SichuanUniversity,Chengdu,P.R.China Zhenli Zhu State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, ChinaUniversityofGeosciences(Wuhan),Wuhan,P.R.China Zhirong Zou College of Chemistry and Material Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, P.R. China; Analytical & Testing Center, Sichuan University,Chengdu,P.R.China Contents List of contributors ix Preface xi 1. Introduction to vapor generation techniques 1 AlessandroD’UlivoandRalphE.Sturgeon 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Limitationsofcurrentsampleintroductionandatomizationtechniques 2 1.3 Vaporgenerationtechniques 5 1.4 FavorablefeaturesandshortcomingsofVGTs 8 1.5 Overviewofbookstructureandcontent 10 References 12 Part I Chemical Vapor Generation 17 2. Chemical vapor generation by aqueous boranes 19 AlessandroD’Ulivo 2.1 Introductionandhistoricalbackground 19 2.2 Boranereagents,reactionproducts,andapparatus 21 2.3 Processesandmechanismsofchemicalvaporgeneration 32 2.4 Factorscontrollingreactivityinchemicalvaporgeneration 51 2.5 Interferences 63 2.6 Finalremarks,openquestions,andfuturetrends 73 References 74 3. Chemical vapor generation of transition and noble metals 91 StanislavMusilandToma´ˇsMatouˇsek 3.1 Introductionandbackground 91 3.2 Experimentalimplementationsofchemicalvaporgeneration 92 3.3 Efficiencyofchemicalvaporgeneration 104 3.4 Detaileddiscussionofmechanismsandfundamentalprocessesin chemicalvaporgeneration 108 3.5 Shortcomingswiththeory,remainingproblems,andlimitations 119 3.6 Conclusionsandfuturedevelopments 120 Acknowledgements 122 References 122 v vi Contents 4. Chemical vapor generation by aqueous phase alkylation 129 ZuzanaGajdosechovaandEneaPagliano 4.1 Introduction 129 4.2 CVGwithtetraalkylborates 130 4.3 CVGwithtrialkyloxoniumsalts 136 4.4 MetalspeciationwithGrignardreagents 143 4.5 Futuretrendsandperspectives 144 References 145 5. Other chemical vapor generation techniques 153 AlessandroD’Ulivo,YueLiuandRalphE.Sturgeon 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Chelateformation 154 5.3 Thermalchemicalvaporgeneration 163 5.4 Generationofvolatileoxides 165 5.5 Chemicalvaporgenerationofvolatilechlorides 169 5.6 Chemicalvaporgenerationofvolatilefluorides 172 5.7 Chemicalvaporgenerationofvolatilebromides 173 5.8 Chemicalvaporgenerationofvolatilecarbonyls 173 5.9 Chemicalvaporgenerationofboronesters 176 5.10 ChemicalvaporgenerationusingSnCl 179 2 5.11 Concludingremarks 179 References 180 6. Chemical vapor generation in nonaqueous media 191 XiaodongWen 6.1 Introductionandbackground 191 6.2 Earlystudiesonchemicalvaporgenerationinnonaqueousmedia 193 6.3 Experimentalimplementationofthetechnique 194 6.4 Fundamentalprocesses;theoryandmechanisms 200 6.5 Remainingproblems,limitations,andshortcomings 205 6.6 Futuredevelopments 205 6.7 Conclusions 206 References 207 Part II Non-Chemical Vapor Generation 211 7. Photo-sono-thermo-chemical vapor generation techniques 213 RalphE.Sturgeon 7.1 Generalintroduction 213 7.2 Photochemicalvaporgeneration 214 7.3 Sonochemicalvaporgeneration 249 7.4 Thermochemicalvaporgeneration 252 7.5 Concludingremarks 252 References 252 vii Contents 8. Catalysts in photochemical vapor generation 265 ZhirongZou,YafeiZhen,ChengbinZhengandXiandengHou 8.1 Introduction 265 8.2 Heterogeneouscatalysis 267 8.3 Homogeneouscatalysis 271 8.4 Conclusions 275 Acknowledgments 276 References 276 9. Plasma-mediated vapor generation techniques 283 XingLiuandZhenliZhu 9.1 Generalintroduction 283 9.2 Sourcesforplasma-mediatedvaporgeneration 284 9.3 InfluenceofcoexistingionsonPMVG 301 9.4 AnalyticalperformanceandapplicationsofPMVG 305 9.5 PossiblemechanismsofPMVG 307 9.6 Concludingremarksandfuturetrends 310 References 311 10. Electrochemical vapor generation 317 EduardoBoleaandFranciscoLaborda 10.1 Introductionandbackgroundtoelectrochemicalvaporgeneration 317 10.2 FundamentalsandexperimentalimplementationofECVG 318 10.3 MechanismsofECVG 328 10.4 Shortcomingsandlimitations:interferencesinECVG 330 10.5 Finalremarksandfuturedevelopments 338 References 339 Part III Atomization Devices 347 11. Nonplasma devices for atomization and detection of volatile metal species by atomic absorption and fluorescence 349 Jiˇr´ıDeˇdina 11.1 Introduction 349 11.2 Processestakingplaceinonlineatomizers 351 11.3 Onlineatomization—preliminaryconsiderations 352 11.4 Onlineatomizers 354 11.5 In-atomizercollection—preliminaryconsiderations 380 11.6 Experimentalapproachestoin-atomizercollection 382 11.7 Conclusionsandfutureperspectives 391 Acknowledgments 392 Dedication 392 References 392 viii Contents 12. Dielectric barrier discharge devices 403 JanKratzerandSebastianBurhenn 12.1 Introduction 403 12.2 DBDconceptanddesigns 404 12.3 Plasmachemistry:processesandspecies 406 12.4 Analyticalapplications 407 12.5 DBDatomizersforAAS 409 12.6 DBDatomizersforAFS 417 12.7 DBDexcitationforOES 419 12.8 Analytepreconcentration 427 12.9 Speciationanalysis 432 12.10 Futureperspectives 435 Acknowledgment 437 References 437 Abbreviations and symbols 443 Index 447