The Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1409: Turkey Raising, by Stanley J. Marsden and Alfred R. Lee This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1409: Turkey Raising Author: Stanley J. Marsden Alfred R. Lee Release Date: May 19, 2019 [EBook #59546] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1409 *** Produced by Tom Cosmas compiled from images made available by The Internet Archive. « i » Washington, D. C. Issued April 1924 Slightly revised February 1939 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1409 TURKEY RAISING [Illustration] TURKEY RAISING is usually carried on as a side line on general farms, though in some parts of the United States it constitutes the chief source of revenue from farming. The number of turkeys in this country decreased for a time after the 1890 census, but during recent years the industry has been growing, largely because of improved methods of controlling turkey diseases and better methods of management. This bulletin has been prepared primarily to inform those interested in turkey raising on modern methods of management. Most of the recommendations are adaptable to both small and large scale production. TURKEY RAISING By Stanley J. Marsden and Alfred R. Lee, associate poultry husbandmen, Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry[1] This publication is a revision of former editions prepared by M. A. Jull, senior poultry husbandman, and A. R. Lee. CONTENTS Page The turkey industry of the United States 1 Varieties 2 The Bronze 3 The White Holland 4 The Bourbon Red 4 The Narragansett 4 The Black 5 The Slate 6 Standard weights of turkeys 6 Selecting breeding stock 6 Managing breeding stock 8 Breeding pens or enclosures 8 Mating 9 Egg production 10 Care of hatching eggs 11 Feeding 12 Combating diseases and pests 14 Incubating turkey eggs 16 Natural incubation 17 Artificial incubation 17 Raising poults 18 « ii » « 1 » [1] Brooding 19 Sanitation 21 Litter 22 Early development 23 Marking 23 Feeding growing turkeys 23 Feed consumption and cost of growing 28 Equipment for raising turkeys 30 Containers for feed and water 30 Houses and fences 33 Protection against dogs 36 Devices that prevent tail-feather picking 36 Range management of growing turkeys 37 Fattening turkeys for market 38 Marketing turkeys 39 When to market 39 Selecting birds for market 40 Withholding feed before slaughter 40 Killing and picking 40 Cooling 42 Packing 43 Dressed-turkey grades 43 THE TURKEY INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED STATES TURKEY RAISING has long been an important enterprise in the United States because great quantities of turkey meat are required annually and its use throughout the year is becoming more popular. Producers should endeavor to make turkey raising more profitable by overcoming heavy losses from diseases that heretofore have been a serious handicap. The enterprise is very adaptable, extending to practically all parts of the United States. The more important areas of production are the Middle Western, Northwestern, and Southwestern States, where large numbers of small flocks are raised annually on farms and ranches and where there are also many large commercial flocks. The number of turkeys in this country began to decrease about 1890, but by 1910 interest in turkey raising revived, and in recent years the industry has been growing, largely because of increased knowledge of blackhead disease and its control. According to the census there were 3,688,000 turkeys on farms in the United States in 1910 and about the same number in 1920. The 1930 census showed 16,794,000 turkeys, but this was the number raised to market age instead of the number of breeding turkeys kept. This new census figure provides a much better measure of the industry's actual size. The 1930 figure indicates a moderate increase between 1920 and 1930 in the number of breeding turkeys kept. The nine States leading in turkey production, as shown by the 1930 census, are Texas, North Dakota, Minnesota, California, Oklahoma, Oregon, Colorado, Virginia, and Idaho. Where conditions are suitable and proper methods of management are followed turkeys can be raised successfully with very simple equipment; therefore the capital outlay in the enterprise may be quite small. Except during the growing season managing the flock is fairly simple. Of course, constitutional vigor must be maintained in the breeding stock; the flock must be kept relatively free from disease; and the soil, especially where the poults are fed, must be kept sanitary. Moreover, turkeys, even when veil fed, will make good use of at least a limited range and in doing so will destroy many injurious insects, eat great quantities of succulent green feed, and pick up much waste grain, weed seeds, and other sources of nutriment. This fact reduces the cost of production and increases the profits. VARIETIES « 2 » Figure 1.—Bronze turkey, male. All domestic varieties of turkeys have descended from the North American wild stock, comprising the eastern wild turkey, which ranged over the eastern part of the United States from Maine to Florida; the Florida wild turkey, which ranged over southern Florida; the Rio Grande wild turkey, which ranged over southern Texas and northwestern Mexico; and the Mexican wild turkey, which ranged over Arizona, western New Mexico, southern Colorado, and Mexico. It is probable, however, that these four wild turkeys were of common origin and that most of our domesticated varieties, especially the Bronze, have descended from the Mexican wild turkey. Six standard varieties of domestic turkeys are recognized by the American Poultry Association, an organization having as its primary function the promotion of standard qualities in all breeds and varieties of poultry in North America. The association publishes the Standard of Perfection, which contains concise descriptions of breeds and varieties of poultry, with illustrations of the most important ones. The following is a brief description of each of the six varieties, namely, the Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Narragansett, Black, and Slate. Figure 2.—Bronze turkey, female. THE BRONZE The Bronze, often called the Mammoth Bronze, is the heaviest and also the most popular variety. The male (fig. 1) is distinguished by (1) the rich, iridescent, red-green sheen of the plumage on the neck, wing bows, wing fronts, wing coverts, breast, front half of the back, and lower thighs; and (2) the lighter, brilliant, copper-colored bronzing of the rear half of the back, tail coverts, tail itself, and body. The bronzing in the tail, tail coverts, and body is bordered by a distinct narrow black band, which in turn is bordered by a wide edging of pure white. The rear portion of the back has the broad bronze bar with the narrow edging of black but does not have the white tips. The plumage of the female (fig. 2) is similar to that of the male, except for an edging of white on the black bars on the back, wing bows, wing coverts, breast, and body. This white edging is narrow in the front of the body and gradually widens toward the rear. Both sexes have the same color pattern in the large wing feathers and in the main tail feathers and coverts. The main tail feathers and coverts have brown penciling (narrow bars) on a dull black background; the large wing feathers are evenly barred with black and white, the bars of the secondaries becoming indistinct as the back is approached. Creaminess, yellow, or yellowish brown in the pure white edging of the main tail feathers and coverts of the Bronze indicates an admixture of wild-turkey blood and is a serious defect in the standardbred Bronze. Lack of the copper-colored bronzing or a tendency for it to be greenish is also a serious color defect. « 3 » « 4 » THE WHITE HOLLAND The White Holland (fig. 3) probably originated as a "sport" from the Bronze or the wild turkey. Its plumage should be pure white in color and free in all sections from black flecking or ticking. The shanks and toes in this variety should be pinkish white. THE BOURBON RED The Bourbon Red male (fig. 4) is of a rich, deep brownish-red color in all sections except the wings, tail, and breast. The primaries and secondaries of the wings are pure white, and the main tail feathers are pure white except for an indistinct bar of red crossing each feather near the end. The breast feathers are red with a very narrow edging of black. The color of the female is similar to that of the male, but there is a very narrow edging of white on the tips of the breast feathers. More than one-third of any other color except white showing in the large feathers of the wing or tail constitutes a standard disqualification in this variety. The rich reddish color, without some black, is rather difficult to obtain and this black ticking or flecking is a rather common fault. A faded red, approaching buff, is also undesirable. Figure 3.—White Holland turkey, male. THE NARRAGANSETT The Narragansett (fig. 5) generally resembles the Bronze in color pattern, but has no iridescent red-green sheen and no bronzing. The Narragansett colors are metallic black with light steel-gray edging and barring bordered, in certain sections, by a narrow black band on the end of the feathers. The plumage, as a whole, has a dark background of metallic black with a broad, light steel-gray edging, showing more of the light color in this edging as the body is approached. In the male, the colors of the wing fronts, wing bows, and wing coverts are the reverse of the colors found elsewhere, being light steel gray, ending in a narrow band of black. The wing coverts form a broad silvery bar across the folded wings. The neck and saddle are black, ending in a broad steel-gray band. The back is rich metallic black, free from bronzing. The breast, body, and fluff are black, the feathers ending in a broad silvery-gray band edged with black. The large wing and tail feathers and the primary coverts are barred with black and white similarly to those of the Bronze, the barring of the upper secondaries becoming indistinct as the back is approached. The plumage of the female is similar to that of the male in this variety, except that an extra edging of silvery gray is added to the ends of the feathers on the back, wing bows, wing coverts, breast, and body. The light edging should be narrow toward the front of the bird and broader toward the rear. The female in general presents a lighter appearance than the male. There should be a rich metallic black but no bronze barring in either sex. The offspring of a Narragansett mating sometimes have a bronze color, but such birds should not be kept for breeders. « 5 » Figure 4.—Bourbon Red turkey, male. THE BLACK The Black (fig. 6), known in England as the Norfolk turkey, is lustrous greenish black in all sections of the plumage. Objectionable white tipping in the feathers of young turkeys of this variety often disappears after the first molt. Any variation from the solid black color should be carefully avoided in breeding this variety. The shanks and toes should be pink in mature birds and almost black in young birds. THE SLATE The Slate (fig. 7) has an ashy-blue or slate-colored plumage, sometimes dotted with tiny black spots, which are undesirable. Feathers of any other color, such as white, buff, or red, constitute a standard disqualification. This variety does not breed true to color, and many of the offspring have both solid white and solid black as well as black-and- white ticking and splashing. The shanks and toes should be pink. STANDARD WEIGHTS OF TURKEYS The standard weights of the different varieties of turkeys as given in the Standard of Perfection are given in table 1. Table 1.—Standard weights of turkeys at various ages Variety Adult cock (2 years old or over) Yearling cock (1 year old and less than 2) Cockerel (less than 1 year old) Hen (1 year old or over) Pullet (less than 1 year old) Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Bronze 36 33 25 20 16 White Holland 33 30 23 18 14 Bourbon Red 33 30 23 18 14 Narragansett 33 30 23 18 14 Black 33 30 23 18 14 Slate 33 30 23 18 14 « 6 » Figure 5.—Narragansett turkey, female. SELECTING BREEDING STOCK The breeding stock is the foundation of the turkey industry, and the greatest care must be used in selecting both male and female breeders. Failure in this respect has undoubtedly been one of the principal reasons why satisfactory results have not been obtained on many farms and commercial plants. One of the first steps in improving conditions, therefore, is more careful selection of the breeding stock. The most satisfactory time of the year to select breeding stock is in November or December, especially before large numbers of turkeys are sold for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Selecting birds early in the season makes possible a choice from a larger number and, what is more important, saves the best-developed and most vigorous birds for breeding instead of marketing them. New blood may be introduced into the flock or a beginning with turkeys may be made by obtaining hatching eggs, day-old poults, or breeding stock, but the purchase of eggs or poults is recommended. New breeding stock should be treated for worms and lice and should be quarantined for 2 or 3 weeks to detect any disease. Figure 6.—Black turkey, male. Turkeys are raised for meat rather than for egg production. The breeders, therefore, should have compact, meaty bodies. The breastbone should be straight, the back broad, especially at the shoulders, and the breadth carried well back toward the tail. The body should be deep, with the breast so broad, full, and well rounded that the breastbone does not protrude prominently. Other important points are full, bright eyes, a broad head, and stout legs set well apart and rather short. Above all else, the birds should be vigorous. When, pedigrees and performance records of the birds' ancestors are available, selection should be based on fertility, hatchability, livability, early maturity, and other desirable factors, as well as on the physical points mentioned above. It is wise to select or build up a flock of purebred turkeys. It costs no more to raise purebred stock than mongrels and the purebreds are usually heavier and command higher market prices. Also, if good standard qualities of shape and color are maintained, some of the birds can be sold for breeding purposes at increased prices. « 7 » « 8 » MANAGING BREEDING STOCK Results in turkey raising depend to a large extent on the kind of breeding stock used each year and the manner in which it is managed. BREEDING PENS OR ENCLOSURES Until a few years ago breeding flocks were ordinarily allowed free range throughout the breeding and laying season (fig. 8). This practice often gives unsatisfactory results because the nests cannot be found readily and therefore the eggs cannot be gathered daily. Many breeding flocks are now kept in good-sized breeding pens or enclosures with nests conveniently located inside or outside the roosting shed (fig. 9). For a pen of 12 to 18 birds a yard of 10 to 15 square rods is large enough. Frequently an orchard is very satisfactory. A hog-proof fence about 6 feet high will confine the turkeys; they are not likely to fly over the fence, because they cannot rest on the top wire. Fences should be tightly stretched and should be dog-proof, because dogs and coyotes are very destructive in turkey flocks. Solid-top fences, gates, and buildings less than 9 feet high should be topped with strips of poultry fence 3 feet wide to prevent turkeys from perching on them. If turkey hens persist in flying over the fence the flight feathers of one wing may be cut, but the wing of a breeding male should never be clipped, as the clipping may interfere with mating. Sanitation in the breeding yards must not be neglected. Either the fences and shelters should be made portable and moved each year to clean ground, or double yards should be constructed for use only in the breeding season, during which time one yard is occupied for 2 successive weeks and then the other, which in the meantime has been kept free of all poultry. Figure 7.—Slate turkey, male.] If two or more breeding pens are maintained, they must be isolated from each other. This can be done with double fences, 12 feet or more apart, or with single fences built solid for about 3 feet above the ground, so that the turkeys cannot see those in other pens. MATING Best results in mating are obtained when from 10 to 15 females are mated to 1 male, although as many as 18 hens can be mated to 1 young tom under favorable conditions. As a rule good fertility will result when several toms are kept with a flock of hens. However, if the toms are quarrelsome and mating is seriously interfered with the males must be alternated, 1 tom being allowed to run with the hens 1 day and another tom the next day. Surplus toms should be penned out of sight of the breeding birds. Figure 8.—Breeding flock of Bronze turkeys on free range. « 9 » The soundest breeding program is one of using yearlings and 2-year-old hens which have been selected as breeders alter they have passed through one full breeding season successfully. However, if pedigreeing can be done, it is practicable to use well-matured pullets selected from parents that lived through their first breeding season and showed good production, fertility, hatchability, and poult livability. The breeding males may be young or old but, in general, well- matured young toms give better results. Proved sires, of course, are valuable and can well be used so long as they will breed. Reserve breeding toms should always be kept, especially when older toms are used, as the latter are sometimes sterile. The spurs of a yearling or older tom should be trimmed smooth, as should the toe-nails of all breeding males, regardless of age, to avoid needless tearing of the backs of the females. All breeding hens and toms that are not to be used for another breeding season should be marketed about June 1. If older hens are used in breeding, it is advisable to replace 3-year-old females with young birds, since egg production decreases rapidly after that age. Immature stock should never be used but, as mentioned before, well-matured young toms and pullets make good breeders especially if trap nesting and pedigreeing can be carried on, thus enabling the breeder to cull properly and sell as market birds the offspring of all hens that die during their first laying season. It is not advisable for the average producer to inbreed turkeys, as this practice has been found to lower the vitality of the stock. When only one breeding pen or flock is kept, it is advisable to obtain new blood every season from a reliable outside source. EGG PRODUCTION The time of year at which turkeys naturally lay depends largely on the climate of the region in which they are raised, being earliest in the South. However, climate need not be permitted to hold back egg production as artificial light can be used to obtain early eggs, as with chickens. Soon after mating begins, the female looks for a nesting place, and about 10 days after the first mating she begins to lay. One nest should be provided for every 3 or 4 hens. The number of eggs produced per bird depends on the breeding of the stock as well as on management. Under ordinary circumstances in the Northern States, young turkey hens should average 35 to 40 eggs and yearling hens 25 to 30 eggs each during the normal breeding season if they are broken up whenever broodiness occurs. By normal breeding season is meant the time between the date the first egg is laid (late in the winter or early in the spring) and June 1. If artificial lights are used, starting about February 5, the breeders should average 50 to 55 eggs each, or an increase of about 15 eggs by June 1, due to the lighting. A few turkey raisers have used lights in December or January, thereby securing very early hatched turkeys and further increasing turkey-egg production. Turkeys are not extensively trap-nested, but the practice is carried on by producers who wish to pedigree the poults and carry on selective breeding. One trap nest is needed for each two hens. The hens should have free access to the trap nests before they start to lay, and they should be carefully watched to see that they do not lay their eggs anywhere except in the trap nests. Secluded places in the house or yard should be eliminated. A simple form of trap nest is illustrated in figure 9. The turkey enters at the front, through the trap door, which closes automatically when the turkey is inside. The door at the top of the coop is opened to release the bird from the nest. When incubators or chicken hens are used to hatch the eggs, the turkey hens may be broken of their broodiness so that they will continue laying. Breaking the hens of broodiness by confining them to a wire-floored coop is very desirable because it permits the hatching of a relatively large number of early turkeys and a larger number from each hen. The birds hatched no later than June are the ones that grow and mature most satisfactorily and therefore attain the best size for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Early hatched birds should be marketed at Thanksgiving or before, and those of later hatches can be used to supply the Christmas and New Year demand. There is some demand for freshly dressed turkeys at all times of the year. To meet this demand turkeys may be hatched from eggs laid during summer and fall. By the use of artificial light and proper feeds, hatchable eggs can be produced in the winter and early in the spring. It is natural for turkey hens to seek secluded places to lay their eggs. Yards that have comparatively short vegetation and are free from bushes or other places of concealment are best, because such conditions discourage the birds from laying outside the nests provided for them. A lookout for hidden nests must be maintained, otherwise eggs may not be collected regularly and may be frozen, partly incubated, or destroyed by animals. Sometimes the hidden nests can be found by watching the turkey hens carefully as they make their way to them, but an easier and quicker method is to confine the hens early some morning soon after they come from the roosts and then let them out about 2 p. m.; the laying hens will make straight for their nests in order to lay the eggs they have been holding. Nests are easily made of boxes or barrels placed inside the shelter or outside in the yards. Some turkey growers prefer to build nesting batteries with nests about 12 by 24 inches. « 10 » « 11 » Figure 9.—Turkey trap nests. The dimensions of this nest are as follows: Width, 14 inches; depth, 24 inches; height in front, 19 inches; and height in hack, 45 Inches. The trap-nest fronts may be home-made, or commercial fronts may be used. CARE OF HATCHING EGGS Hatchability can be seriously damaged by holding eggs at temperatures above 65° or below 35° F. It is most important to hold eggs in a room that can be kept below 65°, preferably between 50° and 60°. Eggs should be collected several times daily and held on their sides or on the small end. It is best to turn eggs gently once daily while they are being held for hatching, but this is probably not necessary unless they are to be kept longer than a week. For best results they should not be held longer than 10 days but if they are held at a suitable temperature and are turned once a day, fair hatchability will be retained for as long as 3 weeks. FEEDING Feeding young breeding turkeys is a matter of supplying a growing ration in the fall and early in the winter, a laying ration late in the winter and in the spring, and a maintenance ration during the summer. Unless breeders are to be kept over for another year, they should be marketed, if possible, about June 1 in order to reduce feed costs and to aid in preventing the spread of blackhead and other diseases that may affect adult turkeys during the summer. If breeders are to be held over for the next season or until fall and if a good summer and fall range is available well away from the growing stock, the breeders are best carried through the summer on a daily feeding of whole grain such as a mixture of equal parts of corn, oats, and wheat. This mixture should be fed at the rate of one-fifth pound per hen daily as a supplement to feed obtained from the range. The toms, if ranged with the hens, should have access to grain in a feeder too high for the hens to reach. A better method is to pen the toms in a separate range lot and give them each one-half pound of grain daily in troughs. Breeding stock so managed during the summer respond economically to a fattening diet offered in the fall. Beginning about 4 weeks before they are to be marketed, usually early in October, the birds may be offered all they will eat daily of the grain mixture. Within 4 weeks they will acquire a fine finish and make a gain in weight of 21/2 pounds or more per hen and 4 pounds or more per tom. About 53/4 pounds of grain per pound of gain is required for the 4-week fattening period. A little better finish is acquired in 6 weeks; but the grade is not improved, and the gains are more expensive. Breeding stock that are to be kept over should be held in the range lots as long as possible and should also be fed liberally in the fall, in order to put them in good condition for the winter. Later in the fall and through the winter the rations for breeders, especially young breeders, may be the same as the growing rations normally fed to young stock. Scratch grain and a simple mash, such as that suggested for growing poults, make a good feed for carrying the breeders through the winter, since they meet the demands of the birds for continued growth or for maintenance. If the climate is such that green feed and sunshine are not available, as in the Northern States, add 5 percent of alfalfa-leaf meal and 1 percent of cod-liver oil to the mash. The birds should have all the mash and scratch they will eat during the fall and winter. Breeders will not become too fat if fed in accordance with this method. They will be fat, but this is desirable if heavy egg production is expected. For the production of large numbers of hatchable eggs turkeys require a ration containing the various nutrients and vitamins. Good results can be obtained with a simple laying ration, such as laying mixture No. 1, if the birds get an abundance of fresh green feed and have range. When ground oats or ground barley is included in any mixture it should be finely ground. Alfalfa leaf meal should be bright green in color. The cod-liver oil should be a standard good-quality product, or the equivalent in fortified cod-liver oil may be used if thoroughly mixed. Laying Mixture No. 1 « 12 » « 13 » MASH Parts by weight SCRATCH Yellow corn or barley (ground) 20 Mixture of equal parts of yellow corn, wheat, and heavy oats. (Grain sorghum may be used in place of the corn.) Wheat middlings or ground wheat 15 Oats or barley (ground) 20 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 10 Fish meal (60- to 70-percent protein) 10 Wheat bran 12 Ground oystershell or limestone 7 Dried milk 5 Salt (fine, sifted) 1 Total 100 Laying mash should be kept before the birds at all times beginning about a month before eggs are expected. Scratch mixture should be fed in troughs, at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per day per bird, so that the consumption during laying will be about equal parts of the mash and scratch. The birds must have access to growing green feed, direct sunshine, and water. If the birds cannot obtain fresh succulent green feed and direct sunshine in abundance, as in the case of those kept in confinement or in cold climates, the ration must be more inclusive. Such a ration may be compounded as follows: Laying Mixture No. 2 MASH Parts by weight SCRATCH Parts by weight Yellow corn or barley (ground) 26 Yellow corn or grain sorghum 40 Wheat middlings or ground wheat 20 Heavy oats 37 1/2 Wheat bran 12 Wheat 20 Alfalfa leaf meal 10 Cod-liver oil 2 1/2 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 8 Total 100 Dried milk 8 Fish meal (60- to 70-percent protein) 8 Ground oystershell or limestone 7 Salt (fine, sifted) 1 Total 100 As with the simpler ration, the mash should be kept before the birds at all times, and the scratch can be hand-fed in troughs at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per bird per day. Clean water should be provided at all times. The same ingredients can be mixed and fed as an all-mash ration with good results. The all-mash formula is as follows: Laying Mixture No. 3 (All-mash feed) Parts by weight Parts by weight Yellow corn (coarsely ground) 30 Dried milk 5 Oats (finely ground) 20 Fish meal (60- to 70-percent protein) 3 Wheat middlings (standard or brown) 21 Ground oystershell or limestone 4 Wheat bran 6 Cod-liver oil 1 1/4 Alfalfa leaf meal 5 Salt (fine, sifted) 3/4 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 4 100 This all-mash mixture is kept before the breeders at all times. Just enough to carry the birds through each day should be given. In this way its freshness is assured, an important consideration in all-mash feeding. If desired, the oyster shell or limestone may be fed separately in hoppers, but mixing it in the mash saves labor and prevents excessive consumption. Gravel or granite grit should be provided to furnish grinding material. Clean water, placed in contamination-proof vessels, should be provided at all times. Alfalfa hay probably cannot be depended upon to supply adequate amounts of green-feed substitute for hatching-egg production. Only by fresh green feed or green- feed substitutes and fish oils can those requirements be met. The oil should be freshly mixed in the feed every week or two. « 14 » All feed should be fed in feeders, never on the ground or in the litter. Feeders should be constructed so as to prevent waste and contamination with droppings. Turkey hens consume a little less than one-half pound of mash and scratch grain per day when practically all of their feed is furnished. Toms consume about 0.7 pound daily; eating mostly scratch grains. COMBATING DISEASES AND PESTS Turkey raisers, to be permanently successful, must follow some system of sanitation. Many growers have prevented disease and the attacks of parasites in their flocks by providing range on clean soil; that is, soil on which no poultry manure has been spread; feeding their birds from feeders that cannot be contaminated by droppings; and keeping the quarters sanitary at all times. Separation of the turkeys from chickens and other poultry at all times is essential. Diseases and parasites of turkeys are discussed in detail in Farmers' Bulletin 1652, Diseases and Parasites of Poultry. Coccidiosis often causes heavy losses in young turkeys. It is best combated by carefully cleaning the brooder house and changing the litter once a week during the brooding period, keeping the litter dry, and using wire-covered feeding platforms. Turkeys are subject also to the attacks of various species of worms, but treatment for worms should not be undertaken until the presence of worms has been determined by examining the droppings or by post-mortem examination. BLACKHEAD Although other infectious diseases sometimes affect turkeys, blackhead is by far the most destructive ailment. It is caused by one of the Protozoa and is primarily a disease of the caeca (the blind pouches of the intestines) and the liver, but the fact that the head of the affected bird often becomes discolored has given the disease its common name, blackhead. It attacks turkeys most frequently, but chicks are often affected by it without showing symptoms; thus the chickens carry and spread the infection to turkeys when allowed to range with them. A combination of spotted liver and ulcerated caeca indicates that the birds have blackhead infection. Although blackhead affects adult turkeys, it occurs principally among poults between the ages of 6 weeks and 6 months. It is found to a greater or lesser extent throughout the United States. The turkeys affected by blackhead, like all birds having infectious diseases, should be removed immediately from the flock to prevent the spread of the disease. The best procedure is to kill the sick birds and burn or bury the bodies, as no treatment has been found satisfactory. Move the flock to clean ground, if possible; but if this cannot be done, clean out and disinfect the roosting place, plow the ground in the yards, and install a system of yard sanitation. Keep chickens and all other poultry away from turkey yards at all times in order to prevent infection from this source. The organisms which cause the disease may be carried by flies, blown with dust, conveyed in contaminated soil on the feet of the caretaker, or spread for considerable distances in other ways. Several measures for preventing blackhead are practiced, the chief of which are: (1) Obtaining eggs or stock from flocks known to be healthy; (2) quarantining and worming all new stock; (3) cleaning and changing the litter at least weekly during the brooding period; (4) keeping both young and mature turkeys on clean ground at a considerable distance from chickens; (5) excluding, so far as possible, pigeons, sparrows, and persons from the turkey houses and yards; (6) frequently cleaning and occasionally disinfecting growing houses, feed troughs, and all other equipment; (7) feeding only in clean feeders, never on the ground; (8) immediately killing and deeply burying or completely burning all diseased birds; and (9) eliminating all stagnant water pools where the turkeys range. Clean range, clean quarters, clean feed, and clean water are most important. LICE AND MITES Lice may cause high mortality among young poults, those badly infested gradually becoming weaker until they die. Head lice are the most troublesome and are found close to the skin near the top of the head, above and in front of the eyes, and under the throat. Applying an insect powder, preferably sodium fluoride, when the hen is set, is an easy method of preventing lice from getting a start among poults. Apply the sodium fluoride among the leathers, working it well down next to the skin, 1 pinch on the head, 1 on the neck, 2 on the back, 1 on the breast, 1 below the vent, 1 at the base of the tail, 1 on each thigh, and 1 scattered on the underside of each wing when spread. If this treatment is not applied, hen-hatched poults are almost certain to have lice. If the hen has been treated in this manner before being set and the poults are not exposed to infested stock or premises, they will remain free from lice indefinitely. It is well, however, to examine the poults occasionally and, if lice are found, to apply sodium fluoride sparingly. It should not be applied until the poults are at least a week old, and then only two very small pinches should be used. Distribute one of these on the neck, the top of the head, and the throat, and the other on the back and below the vent. After the poults are old enough to roost, control lice by applying nicotine sulphate solution in a thin line on the top surface of the roosts. Repeat as often as necessary to keep down the lice and be sure that each bird is exposed to the treatment. Sodium fluoride applied as directed for delousing setting hens or as a dip will completely eliminate all species of lice from mature stock. « 15 » « 16 » The dipping method consists in immersing mature fowls in a large tub of solution made by mixing 1 ounce or sodium fluoride to each gallon of tepid water. Immerse the birds for only a few seconds, raising the feathers at the same time to allow the dip to penetrate to the skin. Dip the birds on a warm day, preferably in the morning, so as to give them time to dry before night. Destroy red mites in the roosting quarters by painting the under side of the roosts and the roost supports with anthracene oil, crude oil, crank-case oil, or any coal-tar disinfectant. Make the application light but thorough, and do it preferably in the morning. The fowl tick or blue bug is one of the worst pests of turkeys in the Southwest. It can be controlled by the methods advised for controlling red mites. PROTECTION FROM COLD, DAMPNESS, AND ENEMIES Protection from adverse weather conditions and enemies is required if turkeys are to be raised successfully. An open-front shed with a reasonably tight roof and dry floor, so arranged that the north, west, and east sides can be closed against storms, will give ample protection for full-grown turkeys. Boosts may be made from good-sized poles or 2 by 4's nailed flat to supports which should be slightly higher at the rear than at the front, where they should be about 21/2 feet above the floor. The space between the roosts should be about 2 feet and the space underneath enclosed with poultry wire. In the southern part of the United States there is little need for well-built turkey houses, but during damp, cold, or stormy weather the turkeys should have protection of some kind. They should not be exposed to dampness, but they can stand a considerable amount of dry cold. In many localities protection from dogs must be provided in some way. High roosts or well-built shelters provide this at night. Keeping the birds confined to high roosts or in dog-proof shelters at night and during the early morning hours gives a good protection. An attendant or a good watchdog is needed to protect the turkeys when they are off their roosts or out of their shelters. INCUBATING TURKEY EGGS The vigor of the breeding stock, the manner in which it has been fed and managed, and the care given the eggs will determine to a high degree the hatchability of the eggs. An important measure of success in turkey raising is the number of fully matured turkeys raised in proportion to the number of hens in the breeding flock. An average of 25 mature birds raised per hen is considered very good in well-managed turkey flocks, whereas in most general-farm flocks 10 to 15 mature birds per hen would be a good average. The period of incubation of turkey eggs is 28 days, and the method is much the same as that used with chicken eggs. Turkey eggs can be successfully hatched by turkey hens or chicken hens, or in incubators. Hatching in incubators is best and is coming into more general use, especially on farms and ranches where turkeys are raised in large numbers. Turkeys hatched and reared by hens, especially chicken hens, are likely to contract disease and become infested with parasites at an early age. Sitting turkey hens can cover from 15 to 18 eggs; chicken hens, from 7 to 10 eggs. NATURAL INCUBATION Hatching the eggs under turkey hens is widely practiced and is often the most practical method. When the turkey hen becomes broody and has remained consistently on the nest for 2 or 3 days, she should be given her eggs. If several turkey hens are sitting at the same time, care should be taken that each gets back into her own nest. Nests are most conveniently arranged on the ground, in boxes about 2 feet square or in barrels. If rats are a menace, the nest should furnish protection against them and should always be made proof against larger animals so that the turkey hens will not be disturbed or the eggs destroyed. The nests should be flat and shallow, as deep nests may result in crushed eggs or crushed baby poults. Nests with damp sod bottoms and only a little straw to keep the eggs from rolling into the corners are generally satisfactory. Nesting batteries in which each hen is provided with a small individual run so that she can get off and on the nest at will are very good. With this method the only care necessary is to see that feed and water are always before the hens and that each one remains broody. If individual runs are not provided, the hens should be taken off daily, allowed to exercise and eat, and then returned to their own nests. Plenty of water to drink and clean, wholesome grain feed, such as a mixture of wheat, oats, and corn, should be provided, and fresh green feed or good alfalfa hay should be made available. Turkey or chicken hens, before being set on turkey eggs, should be treated with sodium fluoride, as previously directed. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION « 17 » Correct incubator temperatures are much the same for turkey eggs as for chicken eggs, but the greater size of the turkey eggs may necessitate some adjustment of the apparatus used in measuring the temperature. This is true in nearly all kinds of incubators except those of the forced-draft type. The relative position of the thermometer in the egg chamber is important in the accuracy with which it records the temperature. For hatching turkey eggs the proper position of the thermometer is usually indicated in the directions that are furnished by the manufacturer of the incubator. As a general rule, with the bottom of the bulb 17/8 inches above the egg tray, the thermometer should read 100.5° F. for the first week, 101.5° the second, 102.5° the third, and 103° the last week. Forced-draft incubators are usually run at about 99.5°. Temperature can best be regulated, however, by using the thermometer that goes with the machine, placing it in the position recommended by the manufacturer, and then following the manufacturer's instructions for hatching turkey eggs, making sure that the egg trays do not sag. Turkey eggs lose about 3.5 percent less moisture during incubation than do chicken eggs, notwithstanding the fact that turkey eggs require about 7 days longer to hatch. Excellent hatches have been obtained when the loss of moisture based on the weight of the eggs just before they were set, ranged within the following limits: After 6 days of incubation, 2 to 8 percent; after 12 days of incubation. 4.1 to 6 percent; after 18 days of incubation, 6.2 to 9 percent; and after 24 days of incubation, 9 to 12 percent. On this basis, a dozen turkey eggs of normal size should lose about 1 ounce for every 6 days of incubation. The air cells of turkey eggs are smaller in proportion to the size of the eggs than are those of chicken eggs because normal evaporation in turkey eggs during incubation is considerably less than that in chicken eggs. When more moisture is needed in the incubator it can be provided by putting in water pans, or by placing burlap wicks in the pans. When less moisture is needed the water pans may be removed or the ventilation increased. As a rule the eggs should be turned at least 3 and preferably 4 to 6 times daily. Four times daily, every 6 hours, day and night, is an excellent plan. They should be tested preferably on the eighth or ninth and again on the twentieth to twenty-second days, and all infertile eggs and those having dead germs should be removed. Cooling the eggs once or twice a day until they feel slightly cool to the face may be of value in small incubators. Turning and cooling should be discontinued about the twenty-third day, and the incubator door should be darkened and kept closed until hatching is completed. The poults may then be left in the incubators for about 24 hours or else put in the brooder and fed as soon as hatching is completed and the poults thoroughly dried off. Poults held in the incubator should be kept at about 95° F. and should have a rough surface such as 1/4-inch-mesh hardware cloth to stand on. Keeping the incubator dark helps to keep the poults quiet and tends to prevent spraddle legs. There is no good reason for withholding feed longer than 24 hours. If feed is withheld for a much longer period when the poults are in the brooder, they may eat the litter. Therefore, poults should be fed when they are put in the brooder house. Shipping day-old poults in specially built strawboard boxes has been found to be satisfactory. The container is larger than that ordinarily used for baby chicks, 60 poults commonly being placed in each box. RAISING POULTS There are few turkey-raising problems so important as brooding and rearing the poults, because the greatest losses in turkey raising usually occur in the first few weeks of the birds' lives. Heavy mortality among the poults may indicate that the breeding stock used was low in vitality or was poorly managed, but it more often indicates poor feeding or management of the poults. The importance of keeping both the poults and the breeding turkeys on ground free from infection and away from chickens cannot be overemphasized. Improper brooding methods cause great losses, because turkey poults are very susceptible to cold, dampness, overcrowding, overheating, unsuitable feeds, and unsuitable litter, and they succumb readily to attacks of diseases and parasites. BROODING The poults may be brooded naturally by turkey hens or artificially by brooders. Brooding by turkey hens provides a never-failing source of heat, allows the poults to be raised in small flocks, and permits taking advantage of free-range conditions. Its disadvantages are that the young turkeys may contract disease or become infected with parasites from the hens and they may wander too far and be killed by storms or predatory animals. Artificial brooding makes it easier to maintain proper sanitation, keeps down costs, puts the poults more directly under the control of the operator, and is more adaptable to large-scale production. NATURAL BROODING Brooding poults by turkey hens is not difficult, although several details should receive careful attention. As soon as the hatch is completed and the poults begin to run out from under the sitting hen, transfer the hen and her brood to a coop. A coop of simple design, such as the A-shaped type (fig. 10), large enough to accommodate a turkey hen comfortably, and well built to protect the brood from rains and natural enemies, is all that is required. It should be about « 18 » « 19 » Figure 10.—A well-built brood coop which can be used either for setting a turkey hen or for raising a brood of poults. 5 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high, with a raised, rat-proof floor. Provide good-sized screened openings for ventilation in hot weather. These openings should be so fixed that rain will not beat into the coop. Have a separate coop for each hen, and if there are several broods, place the coops some distance apart on well-drained soil where the grass is fairly short. For the first day or so it is well to confine the poults in the coop with the mother hen. Then make a small yard, using boards or wire around the front of the coop, and allow the poults to run in and out at will. However, they should not be allowed to run in long, wet grass, and during heavy rains they should be confined to the coop. Move the coop and yard to fresh ground every few days, clean it once a week or more frequently, and disinfect it occasionally. When the poults are about a week old the mother hen may be allowed to roam with her brood, but care should be taken to see that the entire brood returns in the evening and is protected at night from predatory animals. Good results may be obtained by keeping the mother hens confined and allowing the poults to range, but the brood should be properly sheltered during rainstorms or damp weather, which are likely to cause high mortality. The poults may be kept with the mother hen for 3 months or more, but better results are usually obtained by moving them to a separate rearing field on clean ground when they are from 8 to 10 weeks old. If they have shelter and will roost, they are better off without the hens after that age. A turkey hen will raise up to 20 poults successfully, but more than 20 can sometimes be placed with a hen in warm weather. ARTIFICIAL BROODING The practice of brooding poults artificially is becoming more popular and is usually more successful than brooding with turkey hens. The methods used in artificial brooding are very similar to those used in raising chicks, which are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 1538, Incubation and Brooding of Chickens. However, one point of great importance in brooding poults artificially is to make sure that they do not crowd together while in the brooder house. This can be avoided by frequent attention, by providing an even temperature, and by having good ventilation in the brooder house. A colony house or permanent brooder house that is suitable for brooding chicks is equally suitable for turkeys, but fewer birds should be put in the house, as turkey poults are larger than chicks. Between 75 and 125 poults should be placed under one 52-inch hover in the average colony brooder House. Larger hovers and larger brooding rooms will accommodate 225 poults or more, but only an experienced operator should attempt; to raise groups larger than 150. The prevailing custom is to use brooder stoves in portable colony houses or permanent brooding quarters. The colony houses may be moved several times each season, thereby giving the poults plenty of free range on clean soil. Since blackhead is closely associated...