1 UNIVERSITY OF NOVA GORICA GRADUATE SCHOOL CAPOEIRA: INFLUENCES ON DEPRESSION, AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE IN SALVADOR DISSERTATION Goran Gumze Mentors: Prof. Dr. Ivan Šprajc, Prof. Dr. Borut Telban Nova Gorica, 2014 2 Author’s declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis and that no part of this thesis has been published or submitted for publication. I declare that, to the best of my knowledge, my thesis does not infringe upon anyone’s copyright nor violate any proprietary rights and that any ideas, techniques, quotations, or any other material from the work of other people included in my thesis, published or otherwise, are fully acknowledged in accordance with the standard referencing practices. Goran Gumze 3 Acknowledgements This thesis would not be completed without the following people. I thank my mentors prof. Ivan Šprajc and prof. Borut Telban for their support, help and guidance. As any good mentor would, they helped me keep focus on anthropological approach whenever I got stuck in theorisation. I thank to all capoeiristas, patients, therapists and others included in the research. Finally, and most importantly, I thank to my family for patience and to my daughter Mila Mersedes that inspired me over the final two years of this odyssey. 4 Table of contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………...8 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 12 Topics and Background of Research .................................................................................... 19 Methodological Frame ......................................................................................................... 23 PART ONE .............................................................................................................................. 30 Chapter 1: Development of Capoeira ...................................................................................... 30 1.1 Capoeira in Salvador ..................................................................................................... 30 1.2 Short Historical Overview of Capoeira and the Development of Malandragem .......... 31 The development of malandragem ................................................................................... 38 Malandragem and thought concealment .......................................................................... 41 Thee ambiguous function of malandro ............................................................................ 42 1.3 The Social Role of Capoeira .......................................................................................... 45 Capoeira for everyone ..................................................................................................... 47 Capoeira and the magical ................................................................................................ 49 Aesthetics in capoeira ...................................................................................................... 51 Capoeira in middle and upper social classes ................................................................... 52 Some other aspects of capoeira ....................................................................................... 53 1.4 Capoeira and Violence through History ........................................................................ 55 1.4.1 Diaspora .................................................................................................................. 58 1.4.2 Capoeira na rua (Capoeira in the streets) .............................................................. 61 1.4.3 Political institution .................................................................................................. 67 Identification ........................................................................................................... 69 Salvador or Rio de Janeiro? .................................................................................... 70 1.4.4 Repressing the political adversary ........................................................................... 71 Change of Image ..................................................................................................... 72 Underground ............................................................................................................ 73 Myth of the new age capoeirista ............................................................................. 74 Re-created ritual ...................................................................................................... 75 1.4.5 Capoeira as a cultural institution ............................................................................ 77 Africanisation of capoeira ...................................................................................... 78 Revitalisation and stigmatisation of the malandragem ........................................... 79 Capoeira and social integration of the Afro-Brazilian population ......................... 80 Change of image and the social role of capoeira .................................................... 82 Malandragem and image changes ........................................................................... 83 Fighting or a folkloric event .................................................................................... 85 Capoeira and religion .............................................................................................. 86 Political and economic influence ............................................................................ 87 Influences of the persecution period in today’s capoeira ....................................... 89 1.4.6 The nascence of the academy .................................................................................. 90 Street children ......................................................................................................... 95 Preserving tradition ................................................................................................. 97 Favela ...................................................................................................................... 97 Capoeirista and his modern identity ....................................................................... 99 5 1.4.7 Social function of capoeira in favelas ..................................................................... 99 1.4.8 Modern capoeira ................................................................................................... 103 Authenticity ........................................................................................................... 104 The rules of the game ............................................................................................ 105 1.4.9 Capoeira as a part of social life: fieldwork observations ...................................... 106 Batizado ................................................................................................................. 110 1.4.10 Interpretations: analysis of capoeira and batizado functions .............................. 118 Master’s birthday ................................................................................................. 123 1.4.11 Violence, stigmatization and popularisation of capoeira .................................... 124 1.4.12 Relationships between capoeiristas and society ................................................. 126 Urban culture ....................................................................................................... 127 Bahia vs. others ................................................................................................... 129 Capoeira as an urban leisure activity .................................................................. 131 PART TWO ............................................................................................................................ 133 Chapter 2: Violence and Aggressive Behaviour .................................................................... 133 2.1.1 Differences between aggression and violence....................................................... 135 2.1.2 Origins of aggression and violence ....................................................................... 137 2.1.3 Aggression as a consequence of the learning process ........................................... 140 2.1.4 Some different opinions about violence and aggression ....................................... 141 2.1.5 Violence in mythologies ........................................................................................ 143 2.1.6 Urban violence: the difference between aggression and violence ........................ 146 2.2 To be Violent or Aggressive ........................................................................................ 147 General and capoeiristic perceptions of aggression and violence in Salvador............... 149 Latent and explicit forms of aggression and violence .................................................... 151 Violence and gender ....................................................................................................... 152 Violence, initiation into a man's world ........................................................................... 154 Definition of aggression and violence ............................................................................ 157 Chapter 3: Violence and Aggressive Behaviour in Salvador ................................................. 159 3.1 Favela: conflict of interests .......................................................................................... 162 3.1.1 Violence in regards to age ..................................................................................... 167 3.1.2 Violent people are stigmatized .............................................................................. 168 3.1.3 Gangs ..................................................................................................................... 170 Gangs as a means of coping with frustrations ....................................................... 172 3.1.4 Middle class problems ........................................................................................... 173 Chapter 4: Coping with Violence and Aggressive Behaviour in Salvador ............................ 176 The police: friend or enemy? ....................................................................................... 177 4.1 Religious institutions .................................................................................................... 179 4.2 Capoeira ....................................................................................................................... 187 The hero as a violent character ..................................................................................... 188 Protection techniques ................................................................................................... 192 Capoeira as real-life learning ....................................................................................... 193 PART THREE ........................................................................................................................ 195 6 Chapter 5: Depressive Disorders ............................................................................................ 195 5.1 Some theories of origins of the depression .................................................................. 196 Evolutionary theories of the origins of depression ......................................................... 196 Psychodynamic theories of depressive disorders ........................................................... 199 5.1.1 Relationships ......................................................................................................... 205 Competence, self-likening and the development of self-respect ........................... 208 5.1.2 Depression, social or biological pathology ........................................................... 209 5.1.3 Palaeolithic adaptation .......................................................................................... 210 Universal cognitive processes: brain modularity .................................................. 211 Massive modularity ............................................................................................... 213 Mirror Neuron Theory ........................................................................................... 214 Machiavellian intelligence .................................................................................... 215 5.1.4 Depression and evolution ...................................................................................... 215 Social intelligence ................................................................................................. 216 Depression as evolutionary adaptation .................................................................. 217 5.2 Depression today .......................................................................................................... 218 Chapter 6: Depression in Salvador ......................................................................................... 221 6.1 Connections between aggression and depression ......................................................... 222 6.2 Why do some fall ill and others do not? ....................................................................... 223 6.3 Influence of religious institutions on perceptions about depression ............................ 224 6.4 Coping with depression and consequences of the disorder .......................................... 226 6.4.1 Men are embarrassed ............................................................................................. 229 6.4.2 Salvation is in stupor ............................................................................................. 230 6.4.3 Depressive or crazy ............................................................................................... 233 6.4.4 Fatal relationships ................................................................................................. 233 The individual and the state................................................................................... 234 The family ............................................................................................................. 236 Friends ................................................................................................................... 239 Work ...................................................................................................................... 241 Work and raising children ..................................................................................... 243 Chapter 7: Combating Depression in Salvador ...................................................................... 245 7.1 The Brazilian healthcare system .................................................................................. 247 7.2 Tablet or no tablet? ....................................................................................................... 249 7.3 ‘Jogue comigo!’ (Play with me!) ................................................................................. 251 A comparison with the situation today ........................................................................... 257 The link between poverty, race and mental illness at the Juliano Moréira Hospital ...... 260 7.3.1 Reasons for the psychological problems suffered by patients at CENA and the benefits of capoeira therapy ........................................................................................... 261 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 265 The role of capoeira in today's Salvadorian society ...................................................... 271 Violence vs. capoeira ..................................................................................................... 276 Depression in Salvador ................................................................................................... 281 7 Bibliography: .......................................................................................................................... 295 Zaključek…………………………………………………………………………………….316 8 Abstract This thesis is about Brazilian martial art capoeira and its influences on depression, aggression and violence. Capoeira is considered as important social institution among Afro-Brazilian population in Salvador and its rituals are effective means of social relationships harmonization. One of capoeiras particularity that was of great importance for my analysis is the concept of malandragem which represents the art of fraud, survival, mind reading, hiding of intentions etc. In some aspects malandro (the one performing malandragem) can be compared with trickster, however he is human and doesn't have the same metaphysical role as trickster does. Malandragem is perceived as an individual characteristic of each practitioner, however, it exists also on the institutional level of capoeira and enabled the art to survive several persecutions. There are two major paradigms regarding development of capoeira; one proposing that the art was developed in Africa and the other that it was developed in Brazil. In my thesis I am defending the theory that capoeira was developed among enslaved African population brought to Brazil as leisure activity, whose principal role was reestablishment of social hierarchy. Yet Capoeira's role has changed through history and I claim that there are six important developmental phases of capoeira institution. First phase represents the development of the art on senzalas (slaves habitations), where it was one of the leisure activities and means for reestablishment of hierarchy among enslaved population – primarily among men. In second phase martial art features of capoeira were developed. The art was used by slaves to enable the flights from senzalas, and served as military martial art in quilombos (escaped slaves' enclaves). Through third phase in 18th and 19th century capoeira was practiced on the streets of main Brazilian harbour cities as amusement activity of sailors and half free slaves (caboclos), who were selling the products on the markets and in harbours. It was also used as martial art of city gangs and so called vagabundos (the ones living on the street from day to day). After the Brazilian war with Paraguay in the 1860's, in the fourth phase of development, capoeira turned into political and cultural institution of Afro-Brazilian population. The most important fifth phase, through which today's social role of capoeira and its institutional characteristics were constituted, began after the proclamation of first Brazilian republic in 1889, when the art was forbidden and persecuted. The sixth phase started in 1937 with foundation of first capoeira school and institutionalization of the art. According to what I 9 have noticed in my conversations and observations, I could also add seventh phase, starting in 1960es and 1970es. In this period Brazilian capoeiristas started to promote and educate capoeira outside Brazil (USA, Europe), Thus capoeira was developed and still continues to be an institution of diaspora underwent to unique processes of institutional changes explained by Johnson (2007). Each of named phases is important for my analysis of capoeira's role regarding aggression, violence and depression. For example due to capoeira's criminal history the art is still perceived as violent institution per se - also among some Salvadorians. Yet the art teaches how to control aggression, how to deceive the opponent, how to apply violence only when necessary and most of all the institution represents the symbol of Afro-Brazilian's emancipation. Furthermore capoeira has elaborated hierarchical system, re-established through two major rituals: batizado and roda. Former, having two important roles, is usually performed once per year. It represents initiation ritual for new capoeiristas when for older ones it is the exam allowing progressing the official hierarchic scale. On each level capoeirista earns a new girdle that determines his knowledge and status. The ritual of roda is performed periodically in all capoeira schools. Each school organises the roda at least once per week as the part of learning process for young capoeiristas. Rodas de capoeira are also being organised on some celebrative occasions, like for example anniversary of the particular school, group or the master. Some major important rodas are performed on the streets of Salvador during public festivities. In roda capoeiristas are confronted with each other, trying to win the opponent with rastera, queda or golpe (stumble, drop, kick). Observed by other capoeiristas, each player is being valued. Such valuation is crucial in establishment of unofficial hierarchy which supports the official girdle system. In order to be respected as good player, capoeirista has to develop effective and smart capoeira technique and ability to trick. He has to behave in accordance to accepted codex within capoeira institution, yet his identity should represent the style and manners of particular capoeira group. Shortly, as all of my interlocutors quoted: "Capoeirista tem que virar malandro bom." (Capoeirista has to turn into good malandro.). Practitioners have to follow the rules of each group or school and respect and obey their masters. There is another aspect to be mentioned regarding respect toward the masters. In poor quarters, where most Salvadorian capoeira schools operate, masters are respected members of the community according to their efforts to improve the life and relationships in local 10 community. In the ambient where children are exposed to criminal acts, drugs, noise, and pollution and in many cases are living only with mothers or grandparents, capoeira master is the role model and the father of capoeira family. He teaches the youngsters how to cope sometimes difficult life situations and emphasizes the importance of the art and its rituals. In such manner masters are promoters and guardians of Afro-Brazilian culture. They like to compare roda de capoeira with real life and emphasize the importance of the smartness in the play. Pointing out the importance of capoeira regarding violence we have to mention that through involvement in capoeira training and participation on capoeira events, the students are learning how to meet the demands of hierarchical frame, how to respect and how to control their aggression. I have heard many times masters speaking how violence has no place within capoeira and how youngsters should avoid street violence. They have also emphasized the importance of ritual rules and respect toward other especially more experienced capoeiristas. However many interlocutors have quoted that some schools are promoting violence in order to gain more students and be more successful on martial arts market. Thus even if capoeira can prevent violence and students are trained to control the aggression and apply violence only if necessary, in some cases capoeiristas act violent to achieve theirs economic goals or gain social status of being cara perigoso (dangerous guy). Finally, I have analysed capoeira also as a therapeutic technique. At least in Salvador it is performed as therapeutic activity in some psychiatric hospitals. In 2007 I have managed to enter psychiatric hospital Juliano Moréira as a therapist, performing therapy with capoeira. During that period I researched the arts influences on coping with depression. Based on my observations and formal or informal discussions with therapist, capoeiristas and patients I have concluded, that capoeira has positive influences in coping depressive moods. Capoeira includes elements of martial art, dance and music and is part Afro-Brazilian folklore. As physical activity it is effective means to cope with mood and even personality disorders. Being important cultural institution in Salvador, capoeira also has some other, cultural specific influences on individual's identification processes and his self-image construction. Most of Salvadorians I have spoke to, consider capoeira respectful Afro-Brazilian cultural institution. Capoeiristas also find friends within the capoeira group and are mostly being admired outside institution as sports man or respectful members of community. Such perceptions increase self-esteem and constitute positive self-image of those practicing