P A L G R A V E P O L I T I C S O F I D E N T I T Y & Unequal Accommodation C I T I Z of Minority Rights E N S H I P Hungarians in Transylvania S E R I E S Edited by Tamás Kiss, István Gergő Székely, Tibor Toró, Nándor Bárdi and István Horváth Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series Series Editors Varun Uberoi Brunel University London London, UK Nasar Meer University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, UK Tariq Modood University of Bristol Bristol, UK The politics of identity and citizenship has assumed increasing importance as our polities have become significantly more culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse. Different types of scholars, including philosophers, sociologists, political scientists and historians make contributions to this field and this series showcases a variety of innovative contributions to it. Focusing on a range of different countries, and utilizing the insights of different disciplines, the series helps to illuminate an increasingly contro- versial area of research and titles in it will be of interest to a number of audiences including scholars, students and other interested individuals. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14670 Tamás Kiss · István Gergő Székely Tibor Toró · Nándor Bárdi István Horváth Editors Unequal Accommodation of Minority Rights Hungarians in Transylvania Editors Tamás Kiss Nándor Bárdi Romanian Institute for Research Institute for Minority Studies on National Minorities Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Centre Cluj-Napoca, Romania for Social Sciences Budapest, Hungary István Gergő Székely Romanian Institute for Research István Horváth on National Minorities Romanian Institute for Research Cluj-Napoca, Romania on National Minorities Cluj-Napoca, Romania Tibor Toró International Relations and European Studies Department Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania Cluj-Napoca, Romania Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series ISBN 978-3-319-78892-0 ISBN 978-3-319-78893-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78893-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018939724 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright. 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Cover credit: Istvan Kadar Photography/Getty Images Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents 1 Introduction: Unequal Accommodation, Ethnic Parallelism, and Increasing Marginality 1 Tamás Kiss Part I The Minority Rights Regime and Political Strategies 2 Minority Political Agency in Historical Perspective: Periodization and Key Problems 37 Nándor Bárdi and Tamás Kiss 3 Unequal Accommodation: An Institutionalist Analysis of Ethnic Claim-Making and Bargaining 71 Tamás Kiss, Tibor Toró and István Gergő Székely 4 Language Use, Language Policy, and Language Rights 167 István Horváth and Tibor Toró v vi Contents Part II Ethnic Parallelism: Political Program and Social Reality—Ethnically and Non-ethnically Integrated Social Fields 5 Ethnic Parallelism: Political Program and Social Reality: An Introduction 227 Tamás Kiss and Dénes Kiss 6 Hungarian-Language Education: Legal Framework, Institutional Structure and Assessment of School Performances 249 Attila Z. Papp, János Márton, István Gergő Székely and Gergő Barna 7 Churches and Religious Life 293 Dénes Kiss 8 Media Consumption and the Hungarian-Language Media in Transylvania 317 Tamás Kiss 9 Economy and Ethnicity in Transylvania 345 Zsombor Csata Part III Societal and Demographic Macro-processes 10 Demographic Dynamics and Ethnic Classification: An Introduction to Societal Macro-Processes 383 Tamás Kiss 11 A Changing System of Ethnic Stratification: The Social Positions of Transylvanian Hungarians 419 Tamás Kiss Contents vii 12 Assimilation and Boundary Reinforcement: Ethnic Exogamy and Socialization in Ethnically Mixed Families 459 Tamás Kiss Bibliography 501 Index 539 List of Figures Chapter 1 Fig. 1 H ungarians in Transylvania (Source Map created by Samu Márton Balogh based on census data) 25 Chapter 3 Fig. 1 A ttitudes toward minority rights at national level (2000–2014) (Source Surveys by IMAS (1995, 1996), CCRIT (2000, 2006), MetroMedia Transilvania (Etno barometer 2001, 2002), and Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorties (2008, 2012, 2014, 2016)) 88 Fig. 2 A cceptance of granting various rights to Hungarians among ethnic Romanians (proportion of affirmative/positive answers) (Source Surveys by IMAS (1995, 1996) and Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorties (2012, 2014, 2016)) 89 Fig. 3 Th e evolution of funding for ethnic kin communities from the Hungarian state budget between 1990 and 2015 (million USD) Authors’ calculations (Sources Bárdi and Misovicz (2010); Papp (2010); http://www.bgazrt.hu/ (Accessed 12 July 2017)) 134 ix x List of Figures Chapter 4 Fig. 1 C ommunication in Hungarian with local public institutions according to the proportion of Hungarians in the municipality (Source Authors’ own calculations based on survey data) 214 Chapter 6 Fig. 1 P ass rates at the National Evaluation by size of settlement and language of education (Source Authors’ own calculation based on data published by the Ministry of Education) 278 Fig. 2 N ational Evaluation exam scores of ethnic Hungarian pupils by the language of upper secondary education chosen (2014) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on data from admitere. edu.ro) 280 Fig. 3 H igh-school-leaving examinations: official pass rates and the rate of success compared to the number of high-school gradu- ates, Romania and Hungarian-language programs (2012–2016) (Source Authors’ own calculation based on data published by the Ministry of Education) 282 Fig. 4 H igh-school-leaving examination pass rates by settlement size and language of education (Source Authors’ own calculation based on data published by the Ministry of Education) 283 Chapter 8 Fig. 1 A udience of different types of radio stations (2007 and 2015). Figures represent percentages among respondents who reported that they listened to the radio (Source Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorities 2015 and TransObjective Consulting 2007) 333 Fig. 2 A udience of TV channels transmitted from Hungary (1999–2015). Figures represent percentages of respondents who mentioned the respective TV channels (Source Kvantum Research 2010; TransObjective Consulting 2007; Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorities 2013, 2015) 336 Fig. 3 A udience of TV channels transmitted from Romania (1999–2015). Figures represent percentages of respondents who mentioned the respective TV channels (Source TransObjective Consulting 2007; Kvantum Research 2010; Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorities 2013, 2015) 337