· · UNDERSTANDING R OMAN I NSCRIPTIONS • LAWRENCE KEPPIE • The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore CONTENTS List of illustrations 6 13 Gravestones and tomb monuments 98 Acknowledgements 8 14 Trade, economy and the 1 Introduction 9 business world 110 2 The stonecutter and his craft 12 15 Populusque Romanus 116 3 Reading Roman inscriptions 17 16 Christianity 119 4 Dating Roman inscriptions 25 17 The Later Roman Empire 125 5 The survival of Roman inscriptions 30 18 Conclusion: the value of Roman inscriptions 131 6 Recording and publication 36 Appendices: 7 The emperor 42 1 Emperors and dates 136 2 Common abbreviations 138 8 Local government and society 52 3 Roman voting-tribes 140 4 Contents of CIL volumes 140 5 Epigraphic conventions 140 9 The roads that led to Rome 60 Footnotes 141 10 Administration of an empire 70 11 The army and the frontiers 80 Bibliography 148 12 Temples and altars to the gods 91 Index 154 ILLUSTRATIONS Cover: Statue base of Aulus Platorius 23 Seating in the Large Theatre, Pompeii 53 Nepos 24 Election ‘notice’, Pompeii 54 1 Papyrus sheet from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt 13 25 Pillar in the temple-precinct of Apollo, Pompeii 55 2 Slab advertising stone-cutting services 14 26 Arch of the Sergii, Pula, Yugoslavia 56 3 Bronze letters on a marble basin, Pompeii 16 27 Arch of Mazaeus and Mithridates, 4 ‘Roman capitals’, late first century AD 18 Ephesus, Turkey 56 5 Gravestone in the form of an altar 22 28 Slab advertising baths, Pompeii 57 6 The Pantheon, Rome 23 29 Dedication slab at the shrine of the 7 Column of Antoninus Pius 26 Augustales, Herculaneum, Italy 58 8 A lead waterpipe from Chester 27 30 Map of Italy, showing the road system 61 9 A building record from Hotbank 31 Arch of Trajan, Benevento, Italy 62 milecastle, Hadrian’s Wall 27 32 Pons Fabricius, over the Tiber, Rome 63 10 Statue base from Ankara, Turkey 29 33 Bridge over the Cendere Çay, Turkey 64 11 The barracks at Birdoswald fort, 34 Bronze plaque once attached to an Hadrian’s Wall 31 offering at a shrine 64 12 Inscribed stones used in a cathedral 35 Milestone from the Via Traiana 65 bell-tower, Benevento, Italy 32 36 Map of the Roman Empire showing 13 Graveslab, cut in half, used in the road system 66 Trieste cathedral, Italy 33 37 Trajan’s road at the Iron Gates, Yugoslavia 67 14 Re-erected tomb monuments, 38 Milestone in situ, near Petra, Jordan 68 Šempeter, Yugoslavia 35 39 Map of the Roman Empire showing 15 Gravestones being examined by scholars 41 imperial and senatorial provinces 71 16 Statue base from Ostia, Italy 43 40 Statue base reporting the career of 17 Arch of Titus, Rome 45 Aulus Platorius Nepos 73 18 Inscribed panel from the Arch of 41 The Library of Celsus, Ephesus, Turkey 74 Claudius, Rome 46 42 Statue-bases flanking the steps to the 19 Restored text from the Arch of Claudius 47 Library of Celsus 75 20 Restored text of a commemorative slab, 43 Slab reporting the dedication of a Tiberieum 76 York 48 44 Tomb of the procurator Julius 21 Arch of Severus, Rome 49 Classicianus, London 77 22 Close-up of inscription on the Arch 45 Slab recording the construction of of Severus 50 an amphitheatre, Alba Fucens, Italy 78 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 46 Gravestone of Marcus Favonius Facilis, 63 Tomb of Caecilia Metella, Via Appia, a centurion, Colchester, England 82 Rome 102 47 Tomb monument of Longinus Biarta 83 64 Tomb of the Plautii, near Tivoli, Italy 103 48 Gravestones of soldiers of the 65 Pyramid of Cestius, Rome 104 German bodyguard 86 66 Sarcophagus commemorating a baby 49 Panel from the statue base of Gaius and her parents, Manastirine, Solin, Gavius Silvanus, decorated for Yugoslavia 106 military service in Britain 87 67 Mosaic panel, over a tomb chamber 50 Bronze catapult plate, with emblems at Solin, Yugoslavia 108 of the legion 88 68 Bronze corn-measure 111 51 Bronze shield boss, showing emblems 69 Tomb of the merchant Flavius Zeuxis 112 and standards 89 70 Mosaic floor, Ostia, Italy 113 52 Dedication on a rock-face at Trencin, 71 Arch of the Argentarii, Rome 114 Czechoslovakia 89 72 Texts inscribed on a leg of the Colossus 53 Monument to Lucius Poblicius, of Memnon, near Thebes, Egypt 117 reconstructed from fragments, 73 Stone gaming-board from the Cologne, Germany 90 catacombs, Rome 120 54 Temple of Roma and Augustus, 74 Sarcophagus from the Christian Pula, Yugoslavia 92 basilica at Manastirine, Solin, 55 Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome 92 Yugoslavia 121 56 Altar erected to the protecting 75 A selection of Christian texts 122 goddess of Bordeaux 94 76 Arepo-Sator word square on 57 A scene of soldiers sacrificing at an wall-plaster, Cirencester, England 124 altar, on a ‘distance slab’ from 77 Panels giving emperors’ response to Bridgeness, Scotland 95 petition, Ephesus, Turkey 126 58 Doorway to Temple of Isis, Pompeii 96 78 Temple of Hadrian, Ephesus 127 59 Replicas of altars to Mithras, at 79 Bronze dice-dispenser from a a Mithraeum beside Carrawburgh villa in Germany 129 fort, Hadrian’s Wall 96 80 Reused statue base, Rome 130 60 Slab from the tomb of Sextus 81 The Res Gestae of Augustus, Ankara, Aemilius Baro, Rome 99 Turkey 132 61 Burial plots at Aquileia, Italy 99 82 The Duke of Gloucester unveiling an 62 ‘Street of the Tombs’ outside the inscribed plaque at the Legionary Herculaneum Gate, Pompeii 101 Museum, Caerleon, Gwent 133 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to many friends and colleagues for Princeton, New Jersey, where the author enjoyed a their help on detailed points. In the first instance I happy and fruitful semester in the spring of 1989. must thank Dr Roger Tomlin for suggesting my During preparation of the book, I visited sites and name to Batsford as author of a book on this topic. monuments in Italy, Germany, Israel, Austria, Among those who wittingly or unwittingly aided my France, Yugoslavia and Turkey. I enjoyed the researches, I mention Professor Michael Crawford hospitality of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum, (University College, London); Mr P.R.Jeffreys- Bonn, the Landesmuseum and Römisch- Powell (University of Glasgow); Dr Helen Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, and at Whitehouse (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford); Dr various times had financial support from the John Patterson (Magdalene College, Cambridge); University of Glasgow, the Johannes Gutenberg the late Dr Jaroslav Šašel (Slovenian Academy of Universität Mainz, the British Academy, the the Sciences); Miss Lindsay Allason-Jones (Museum Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland and of Antiquities, Newcastle); Dr K.-V.Decker the Haverfield Trust. (Landesmuseum, Mainz); Professor Benjamin Isaac Dr Graham Webster and Mr Peter Kemmis Betty (University of Tel Aviv); Dr David French (British made valuable editorial suggestions. The Institute of Archaeology, Ankara); Dr Emilio Marin photographs were taken and the line-illustrations (Archaeological Museum, Split); Mr Richard Brewer prepared by the author, except where acknowledged (National Museum of Wales); Mr Michael Dobson separately. For permission to reproduce (University of Exeter); Dr D.J.Breeze (Historic photographs, author and publishers are grateful to: Buildings and Monuments, Scotland); Dr Robert The Egypt Exploration Society (Fig. 1); Museum of Matijašic (Archaeological Museum, Pula); Professor Antiquities, Newcastle (Figs. 9, 51, 68); University Jane Crawford and Professor Bernard Frischer of Durham (Fig. 11); Colchester & Essex Museum (University of California); Professor A.A.Barrett (Fig. 46); Corinium Museum, Cirencester (Fig. 76); (University of British Columbia); Lt.-Col. National Museums of Scotland (Fig. 57); National A.A.Fairrie; Prof. E.B.Birley; Dr Pierre Valette; Ivor Museum of Wales (Fig. 82); Rheinisches Davidson and Margaret Robb. Landesmuseum, Bonn (Fig. 79); Rheinisches Dr Miriam Griffin kindly agreed to read a draft Bildarchiv, Köln (Figs. 47, 53); J.M.Arnaud and the version of the book, as did Miss Joyce Reynolds. In Musée d’Aquitaine, Bordeaux (Fig. 56); Museo particular I benefited from the latter’s unparalleled Archeologico, Aquileia (Fig. 40 and front cover). knowledge of epigraphic texts and secondary Arheološki Muzej, Split (Fig. 67); Museo literature; her sharp eye and commonsense saved Archeologico, Torino (Fig. 49); Institut français me from many errors. Those that may remain are d’Archéologie orientale (Fig. 72); Prof. A.R.Birley the responsibility of the author. It is a pleasure to (Fig. 21); Prof. D.Baatz (Fig. 50); Dr R.A.Knox (Fig. note that Miss Reynolds has recently completed a 13); Prof. S.S.Frere (Fig. 37) and Dr P.W.Freeman brief guidebook to Latin inscriptions, published by (Fig. 38). the British Museum. Hunterian Museum The text was written partly in Glasgow and University of Glasgow partly at the Institute for Advanced Study, October 1990  1 INTRODUCTION The value of inscriptions as historical material is so great that it can hardly be exaggerated. Apart from modern forgeries, which are rare and in general easily detected, they are contemporary and authoritative documents, whose text if legible cannot be corrupt, and whose cumulative value, in the hands of scholars accustomed to handling them in the mass, is astonishing. They are the most important single source for the history and organisation of the Roman Empire. (R.G.Collingwood)1 The subject of the following pages is a substantial people who have no place as individuals in the and ever-growing resource for archaeologists and pages of the Roman historians. The evidence of historians of the Roman world. It can be inscriptions is especially useful in reconstructing estimated that over 300,000 inscriptions are the story of provinces far from Rome. Above all known; this mass of evidence grows at upwards of they provide an enormous reservoir of incidental 1000 items per year, and the volume of new information on the world of the Romans and the discoveries shows no sign of diminishing. organization of their empire. Inscriptions provide valuable confirmation and First, a definition. The term ‘Roman amplification of our often meagre and selective inscriptions’ is used in modern times to denote the literary sources. They can provide details of texts inscribed on a variety of materials which have events not reported at all by the Roman historians, survived from antiquity. The study of inscriptions or can attest the careers and activities of officials has come to be known as epigraphy, from a Greek and officers otherwise completely unknown. word, epigraphe, meaning literally an ‘inscription’. Inscriptions of the latter type are a major source Latin terms for an inscribed text are inscriptio2 and of material for the scholarly pursuit of titulus,3 the latter word encompassing both the text prosopography, which seeks to reconstruct and the panel on which it is inscribed. administrative hierarchies and family relationships, In Italy and the western provinces the language and thereby illuminate ancient society. Equally used was chiefly Latin. But it should be important, inscriptions cover a wide, though by no remembered that the common language of Roman means complete, socio-economic spectrum of the provinces east and south of the Adriatic was Greek, community, bringing before us a vast number of which was the language of law and administration  UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INSCRIPTIONS as well as the day-to-day lingua franca of much of should be said at once that I here exclude two the eastern Mediterranean world. Many ‘Roman’ forms of documentary evidence from antiquity: inscriptions from these lands were inscribed in coins and papyri, which constitute separate Greek. There are bilingual, even trilingual texts, in branches of study in modern times. Coins the manner of the well-known Rosetta Stone.4 normally bear Latin or Greek texts often Local languages and scripts such as Punic, Thracian incorporating the names of an emperor, and Palmyran can be found alongside Latin and magistrates or other issuing authorities and other Greek. In the following pages, however, the useful information; the texts can be instructively emphasis will be on inscriptions in Latin. compared with those on stone. Papyri, a sometimes Sometimes the word ‘inscriptions’ is used to refer undervalued source, are found predominantly in more casually to the stones or other materials Egypt. They give invaluable insights into the which have been marked, written on, or chiselled paperwork which an imperial bureaucracy with a formal message which the dedicator generated, or report correspondence, business frequently intended would be seen, admired, and transactions or everyday activities which did not perhaps pondered on. Often the setting up of an normally find their way on to stone (below, p. 110). inscription was a public act, for public Papyri, parchment sheets or wooden writing tablets consumption. served for day-to-day short-term transactions; they Not all inscriptions were, however, on stone. rarely survive in the western Roman provinces, but Bronze was an important medium, used often for recent discoveries of wooden writing tablets from legal documents.5 After a fire had destroyed the Vindolanda and elsewhere are pointers to how Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill in Rome in much we should know if they did (below, p. 90). AD 69, the new emperor Vespasian had a search The Romans were not the first to inscribe texts. made for copies as replacements for the three The impulse to do so is as old as writing itself. thousand bronze tablets, many relating to the early Cuneiform tablets from the end of the fourth history of the Roman state, that had been lost.6 The millennium BC onwards recorded state events as poet Horace claims in a well-known line that his well as the commercial life of Mesopotamia. poetry constituted a record aere perennius, even Readers will recall the ‘writing on the wall’ at longer-lasting than bronze.7 Nowadays inscriptions Belshazzar’s feast, interpreted by Daniel.10 Egyptian on bronze constitute a very small proportion of hieroglyphs decorated the tombs of pharaohs and surviving texts; they were much more susceptible to nobles and the temples to the gods from about damage, melting down and re-use in antiquity and 3000 BC onwards. The Greeks made widespread after.8 Where such documents survive, even in use of inscriptions, in most of the major fragments, they preserve for us important historical categories: building records, gravestones, information, such as laws, treaties, edicts, religious dedications to the gods and public decrees. Greek texts and dedications. settlers in Italy passed on a version of their Wooden panels were employed for public alphabet to the Etruscans and others; soon the notices. It was presumably on a painted wooden Romans had begun to inscribe texts, from at least board that Julius Caesar displayed at his Triumph in the sixth century BC onwards.11 As a medium of 47 BC the simple but powerful text, VENI, VIDI, expression in the Roman world, inscriptions were VICI (came, saw, conquered).9 Such boards are being cut and erected over a period of one shown, held by attendants, in the triumphal thousand years; the tradition of writing in Latin procession depicted on the Arch of Titus in Rome continued throughout the Middle Ages to modern (below, p. 45). times. Clearly therefore the surviving inscribed Latin (or Greek) could also be written on texts reflect and illuminate the changing vocabulary metals, on baked clay tiles or bricks, on pottery, and grammatical structure of Latin over an glass, wall plaster or in mosaic tesserae. All these extended period. A majority of the Latin texts come under the general heading of inscriptions surviving from ancient times belongs in inscriptions, and often form a valuable corrective the first three centuries AD, i.e. from the time when to more formal, official records on stone. It Roman power was at its height.  INTRODUCTION The texts of inscriptions are frequently Republic and the Early Empire receive the bulk of presented in books as neat lines of typescript. This attention here, at the expense of early and later gives a doubly false impression, firstly of a periods. A bias may well also be detected in the text uniformity in script and lettering, and also of easy and in the choice of illustrations towards categories legibility, to produce a sanitized version of the text, which readers are most likely to encounter in a which deprives it of much that would be museum, or when visiting an archaeological site. interesting. The most important fact to remember One result should be to place Romano-British texts about any Roman inscription is that it is inscribed in a wider historical and cultural context. on something. The text may easily not be the only A word of explanation, perhaps of apology, is decoration on the stone. The smallest and necessary over the title of the book. ‘Roman’ is seemingly most insignificant slab can be set into the preferred to ‘Latin’, in accordance with common handsomest of monuments. The best place to study usage in British archaeological circles. inscriptions is where they survive in an original This is obviously a subject that lends itself to location, or failing that, in a museum, preferably a illustration, especially by way of photographs. The museum with a large and varied collection. illustrations offered here are from Rome and Italy This book has two aims: firstly to introduce the and from a wide spectrum of provinces. Some may non-specialist reader to the subject of inscriptions be well known, but I find no value in avoiding texts and provide some guidance towards reading the which a small percentage of readers may find Latin texts. Secondly, to get him or her to hackneyed, and to field a ‘reserve side’ merely as appreciate the significance of inscriptions as a evidence of the author’s ingenuity or wide resource for the historian and archaeologist anxious researches. Inscriptions which seemed the best to to know more about the Roman world. If this is the illustrate a particular point are used here, whether first book on inscriptions which the reader picks familiar or not. Perhaps readers may look at even up, I hope it may not be the last. ‘An inscription, to those familiar stones with new interest and the scholars of those days [early nineteenth awareness. Needless to say, many of these are the century], was like the sound of a bugle to a author’s favourites, which he has found especially warhorse’.12 Present-day epigraphists will know the helpful in lectures over the years. feeling still! Nowadays, Latin is no longer a My own interest in this branch of ancient universal language, and is often employed in evidence was generated by a Roman history class archaeological publications by those unfamiliar with taught at Glasgow University by A.R.Burn, the its grammatical structure. Translations offered of distinguished historian of ancient Greece, and also Latin inscriptions in the following pages author of Agricola and Roman Britain (1953) and deliberately follow as closely as possible the Roman Britain: an Anthology of Inscriptions (1932 and wording of the originals, for better comparison 1969). Each week the class (in my time about four with the Latin texts, though this may on occasion students) sat with copies of that massive, then lead to some inelegance in the English. newly available tome The Roman Inscriptions of Britain It is not the principal intention here to provide (vol. 1), which we seemed to devour almost from another learned handbook to Latin inscriptions (for cover to cover as the weeks progressed; particular which, see Chapter 6 and Bibliography p. 148ff.). stones, selected apparently at random, formed the Nevertheless, it is difficult to avoid some of the subject of special scrutiny. The great bonus was standard features of such works, such as a list of Burn’s ability to make even the apparently most Latin abbreviations, and a list of the names, titles uninspiring text seem interesting, and to draw out and dates of Roman emperors (see Appendices, p. its unique contribution to our understanding of the 136) The pages that follow are here intended rather ancient world. as a demonstration to the non-specialist audience It is to Robin Burn, now in his eighty-ninth year, of the significance of this category of ancient that the present volume is affectionately dedicated.† evidence. It is hoped that no important aspect will have been ignored, but I have made no attempt to † A.R.Burn died in Oxford on 17 June, 1991, at the include every sub-category of texts. The Late age of 88.  2 THE STONECUTTER AND HIS CRAFT Some idea can be formed, both from ancient literary face of the stone, assuming that this was the area to references and from the surviving end-products, of a be inscribed, was smoothed off. Next the likely sequence of events involved in the stonemason might chisel a series of horizontal lines commissioning and erection of an inscribed stone.1 across the stone to mark the top and bottom of Firstly could come a decision on the part of an each row of lettering. Sometimes such lines are still individual or group to have a permanent record faintly visible on the stone. Occasionally it seems made: a tombstone, altar or commemorative plaque that the actual letter-shapes were lightly inscribed of some kind. Presumably the text was then written with a chisel. More often, they were probably out. A fragmentary sheet of papyrus from marked in chalk, charcoal or paint. Something of Oxyrhynchus in Egypt may represent a draft text the style of the chalked or painted lettering can be written in large elegant capitals (Fig. 1). It is a carried forward into the inscribed text. This process dedication to the emperors Diocletian and Maximian of preparation and arrangement is now termed by a [v]exill(atio) leg(ionis) V M[ac(edonicae)]. ‘A ordinatio. The lettering of the text may start large detachment of the Fifth Legion Macedonica.’ It must and be reduced as the lines progress; the lettering be very likely that this was a text from which the may give prominence to certain elements, for stonecutter was meant to work.2 instance the name of the deceased or the emperor. After drafting, the text could be taken to a Some forethought was needed, so that important stonemason’s workshop or yard (an officina), and an details were highlighted (See Fig. 16). appropriate design selected for the stone itself. The In some cases considerable attention has been stonemason is likely to have had a range of semi- paid to the preparation of the surface to be prepared slabs and stones available for inspection. inscribed, the layout of the text and the placing of Marble came into use in Italy in the mid second individual words. We may on occasion suspect that century BC, and by the middle of the first was the text was perceived aesthetically as one element widely used in Rome, as it often was in the in an artistic whole, rather than merely a provinces, especially in the East. Local limestones documentary record. However, such care was not or sandstones were also employed. Sometimes universal. Sometimes the stonemason seems to have stonemasons had to work on uncompromising or given little thought to the overall length of each difficult surfaces of whatever stone was available; line, or the length of the inscription in relation to the quality of the inscription suffers as a result. the space available for it. Examples of such Once the text had been drafted and details of resulting irregularity occur particularly in the cost agreed, the stonemason set to work. The front provinces, where tradition and experience in  THE STONECUTTER AND HIS CRAFT stonecutting must have been less securely based. Pompeii a certain Aemilius Celer signed two The impression is occasionally gained of the painted electoral notices as their scriptor.6 From sudden realization by a stonemason, say two-thirds Philippi in northern Greece comes a series of of the way through his task, that there was dedications, the sponsor of which claimed on one insufficient room for all that had to be inscribed. text that he had ‘smoothed down the stone at his Then follows some frantic abbreviation, or the own expense’, and on another that he had ‘cut back linking up of lettering (‘ligaturing’, below, p. 20), or the rock-face below, and made the panel on which reduction in letter size. Even then the inscription he wrote (scripsit) and carved (sculpsit) the names of can still spill over on to the side or bottom margins the worshippers’.7 At Palermo there is a remarkable of the slab (see for instance Fig. 16). bilingual text on a stone panel, in Latin and Greek, The Latin term for a stonecutter was a lapicida or which can be interpreted as a shop-sign (Fig. 2). faber lapidarius, a ‘workman in stone’.3 One of the The Latin text reads: Tituli/heic/ordinantur et/ guests at Trimalchio’s Banquet (as reported by sculpuntur/aidibus sacreis/cum operum publicorum. Petronius, writing in the mid first century AD) was ‘Inscriptions arranged and cut here, for sacred and Habinnas, ‘a priest and a stonemason [the word public buildings’. The two Latin verbs are ordinantur used is lapidarius], who’s very good at doing and sculpuntur.8 There is another such ‘sign’ from tombs’.4 Later Trimalchio gives Habinnas detailed Rome: ‘If you need inscriptions cut for tombstones, instructions as to the decoration of his own tomb or any sort of stonework done, this is the place!’9 and the inscription to be cut on it (below, p. 100). The techniques of carving and the forms of Someone who inscribed a text was a sculptor individual letters have been the subject of detailed (sculptor) or scriptor titulorum (writer of texts).5 At study. Recently, at Caerleon, Gwent, Mr Richard 1 Papyrus sheet from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, bearing a 26×23cm (×9in.) AD 295–96. (Egypt Exploration text in honour of the emperors Diocletian and Maximian. Society). 