UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS RESEARCH UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS RESEARCH Bart L. Weathington Christopher J.L. Cunningham David J. Pittenger A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION CoverImage:JulianHuijbregts/iStockphoto. Copyright©2012byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved. PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey. PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada. 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Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprintmaynot beavailableinelectronicformats.FormoreinformationaboutWileyproducts,visitourwebsiteat www.wiley.com. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData: Weathington,BartL. Understandingbusinessresearch/BartL.Weathington,ChristopherJ.L.Cunningham,DavidJ. Pittenger. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-118-13426-9(cloth) 1. Management–Research–Methodology.2. Business–Research–Methodology.3. Social sciences–Research–Methodology. I.Cunningham,ChristopherJ.L.II.Pittenger,DavidJ. III.Title. HD30.4.W422012 650.072–dc23 2011053437 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 10987654321 To Jeanie, Alex, Rebecca, Mom, and Dad for literally everything —Bart L. Weathington To my family, students, and colleagues—thank you for spending time with me on the journey —Christopher J. L. Cunningham To my wife, Denise, who has, by example, taught me to enjoy the moment and to worry less about the future, which I cannot control —David J. Pittenger CONTENTS Preface xiii PART I: OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS 1 1 RESEARCHANDBUSINESS 3 Introduction 4 Why Is Understanding Research Methods so Important? 4 The Role of Science in Business and Everyday Life 4 The Scientific Method 5 Brief History of the Science of Behavior in the Workplace 6 Bacon’s Legacy 10 Other Important Historical Figures 10 Assumptions of Science 12 Requirements for Scientific Research 13 Chapter Summary 18 Chapter Glossary for Review 20 References 21 2 ETHICSANDRESEARCH 23 Introduction 23 What Is Ethics? 24 Approaches to Ethical Analysis 26 Making Ethical Decisions 29 Ethical Business Research 30 Components of an Ethical Research Plan 32 Research in Action: Ethical Dilemmas 37 Chapter Glossary for Review 40 References 40 3 THEFOUNDATIONSOFRESEARCH 41 Introduction 41 The Hypothesis in Research 42 Types of Hypotheses 46 Measurement 52 vii viii CONTENTS Reliability of Measurement 57 Validity of Measurement 59 Populations and Samples 61 Research in Action: Credit or Cash? 65 Chapter Summary 68 Chapter Glossary for Review 69 References 71 4 ANOVERVIEWOFEMPIRICALMETHODS 73 Introduction 74 Internal, Statistical, and External Validity 74 Survey of Empirical Methods 83 Intact Groups Designs and Quasi-Experimental Studies 87 Surveys 90 Correlational Studies 90 Interviews and Case Studies 92 Meta-Analysis 93 Computers and Statistics 94 Research in Action: Price Matters 95 Chapter Summary 99 Chapter Glossary for Review 101 References 103 PART II: NUTS AND BOLTS OF RESEARCH 105 5 WRITINGTHERESEARCHREPORT 107 Introduction 107 What Do Readers Appreciate in Good Writing? 109 Elements of Style 109 Special Grammatical Issues 113 Academic Integrity 117 Parts of the Research Report 122 Chapter Summary 135 References 136 6 REVIEWINGTHELITERATUREANDFORMINGHYPOTHESES 137 Introduction 138 Bibliographic Research 138 The Internet as a Source 141 Developing a Search Strategy 143 Searching the Literature: The Library 144 Research in Action: Does Listening to Mozart Make You Smarter? 148 Statistical Inference and Testing Hypotheses 150 Chapter Summary 154 CONTENTS ix Chapter Glossary for Review 155 References 156 7 SAMPLING:THEFIRSTSTEPSINRESEARCH 157 Introduction 158 The Nature of Samples 159 Probability Sampling 160 Sampling Methods 162 Nonprobability Sampling 165 Central Limit Theorem 167 Applications of the Central Limit Theorem 170 Sources of Bias and Error: A Reprise 176 Research in Action: Sampling Matters 178 Chapter Summary 180 Chapter Glossary for Review 181 References 182 8 CREATINGANDUSINGASSESSMENTS,SURVEYS,AND OBJECTIVEMEASURES 183 Introduction 184 Purpose of Measurement 184 Caveat Assessor 184 Creating a Measurement Scale and Developing a Data-Collection Strategy 186 Interviews, Questionnaires, and Attitude Surveys 187 Question Response Formats 190 Writing Good Survey Items 194 Determining the Sample Size for a Survey 199 Naturalistic Observation 201 Research in Action: Analysis of Assaults 207 Chapter Summary 212 Chapter Glossary for Review 212 References 215 9 AMODELFORRESEARCHDESIGN 215 Introduction 216 A Model for Research Design 216 What Is the Independent Variable? 221 What Is the Dependent Variable? 223 Are There Confounding Variables? 224 What Are the Research Hypotheses? 227 Mathematical Hypotheses 228 Evaluating Hypotheses 229 Evaluating Hypotheses: Practical Matters 232 Research in Action: Sex Differences and Shopping Behavior 236 Research in Action: Changing Attitudes by Writing Essays 236 x CONTENTS Chapter Summary 237 Chapter Glossary for Review 239 References 240 PART III: COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS 243 10 CORRELATIONALRESEARCH 245 Introduction 246 Conceptual Review of Correlation 246 Pearson’s r 248 Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient 248 Factors that Corrupt a Correlation Coefficient 250 Sample Size and the Correlation Coefficient 253 Applications of the Correlation Coefficient 255 Regression Analysis 259 Introduction to Mediation and Moderation 261 Regression to the Mean 262 Research in Action: Education and Income 264 Chapter Summary 268 Chapter Glossary for Review 269 References 270 11 BETWEEN-SUBJECTSDESIGNS 271 Introduction 271 Student’s t-Ratio for Independent Groups 272 Review of Hypothesis Testing 274 Testing Statistical Hypotheses 276 Common Errors in the Interpretation of p 282 The Power of a Test 284 Estimating the Sample Size 289 Statistics Behind The Research 291 Chapter Summary 295 Chapter Glossary for Review 296 References 296 12 SINGLE-VARIABLEBETWEEN-SUBJECTSRESEARCH 297 Introduction 298 Independent Variable 298 Cause and Effect 301 Gaining Control Over the Variables 301 The General Linear Model 303 Components of Variance 306 The F-Ratio 307 H and H 310 0 1 CONTENTS xi F-Ratio Sampling Distribution 310 Summarizing and Interpreting ANOVA Results 312 Effect Size and Power 313 Multiple Comparisons of the Means 315 Research in Action 318 Chapter Summary 320 Chapter Glossary for Review 321 References 322 13 BETWEEN-SUBJECTSFACTORIALDESIGNS 325 Introduction 326 The Logic of the Two-Variable Design 326 Advantages of the Two-Variable Design 327 Factorial Designs: Variables, Levels, and Cells 331 Examples of Factorial Designs 332 Main Effects and Interaction 334 Designing a Factorial Study 342 Identifying Samples and Estimating Sample Size 344 Interpreting the Interaction: Advanced Considerations 346 Chapter Summary 348 Chapter Glossary for Review 348 References 349 14 CORRELATED-GROUPSDESIGNS 351 Introduction 351 Logic of the Correlated-Groups Research Design 352 Repeated-Measures Design 353 Longitudinal Designs 362 Matched-Groups Design 365 Mixed-Model Design 367 Research in Action 368 Chapter Summary 370 Chapter Glossary for Review 370 References 371 PART IV: SPECIAL RESEARCH DESIGNS 373 15 RESEARCHWITHCATEGORICALDATA 375 Introduction 375 Goodness-of-Fit Test 377 χ2 Test of Independence 381 χ2 Test of Homogeneity 384 Further Analysis of the χ2 385 McNemar Test 388 xii CONTENTS Research in Action: Gambling and Productivity 391 Chapter Summary 393 Chapter Glossary for Review 394 References 394 16 QUALITATIVEANDMIXED-METHODSRESEARCH 397 Introduction 398 Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research 398 Theory and Perspectives Guiding Qualitative Research 399 Mixing Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Combined 400 Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Data Collection and Analysis 402 Benefits and Challenges of Mixed-Methods Research 408 Sources of Published Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research 411 Research in Action: Gender- and Job-Based Differences in Work Stress 412 Chapter Summary 414 Chapter Glossary for Review 415 References 415 AppendixA:StatisticsBehindtheResearch,or,‘‘WhatWasI SupposedtoRememberfromMyStatisticsClassAnyway?’’ 417 AppendixB:StatisticalTables 435 Index 485