Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance M.S. Evans (Kumho European Technical Centre) ISBN: 1-85957-306-1 RAPRA REVIEW REPORTS A Rapra Review Report comprises three sections, as follows: 1. A commissioned expert review, discussing a key topic of current interest, and referring to the References and Abstracts section. Reference numbers in brackets refer to item numbers from the References and Abstracts section. Where it has been necessary for completeness to cite sources outside the scope of the Rapra Abstracts database, these are listed at the end of the review, and cited in the text as a.1, a.2, etc. 2. A comprehensive References and Abstracts section, resulting from a search of the Rapra Abstracts database. The format of the abstracts is outlined in the sample record below. 3. An index to the References and Abstracts section, derived from the indexing terms which are added to the abstracts records on the database to aid retrieval. Item 1 Source of Macromolecules original article 33, No.6, 21st March 2000, p.2171-83 EFFECT OF THERMAL HISTORY ON THE RHEOLOGICAL Title BEHAVIOR OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANES Authors and Pil Joong Yoon; Chang Dae Han affiliation Akron,University The effect of thermal history on the rheological behaviour of ester- and ether-based commercial thermoplastic PUs (Estane 5701, 5707 and 5714 from B.F.Goodrich) was investigated. It was found that the injection moulding temp. used for specimen preparation had a marked effect on the variations of dynamic storage and loss moduli of specimens with time observed during isothermal annealing. Analysis of FTIR spectra indicated that variations in hydrogen bonding with time during isothermal annealing Abstract very much resembled variations of dynamic storage modulus with time during isothermal annealing. Isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiments indicated that the thermoplastic PUs exhibited a hysteresis effect in the heating and cooling processes. It was concluded that the microphase separation transition or order-disorder transition in thermoplastic PUs could not be determined from the isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiment. The plots of log dynamic storage modulus versus log loss modulus varied with temp. over the entire range of temps. (110-190C) investigated. 57 refs. Companies or GOODRICH B.F. organisations Location USA mentioned Accession no.771897 DOCUMENT DELIVERY SERVICE Almost all of the documents which are listed in the References and Abstracts section are available in full text form, as photocopies or pdf files from Rapra Technology Ltd’s Document Delivery Service. Documents can be delivered by a variety of methods, including email, post or fax. Customers may pay for individual copies at the time of ordering by credit card or alternatively open up a deposit account. Please contact the Document Delivery Department for availability, current prices and delivery methods. Document Delivery Department Rapra Technology Limited, Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, United Kingdom Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 Email: [email protected] Previous Titles Still Available Volume 1 Volume 4 Report 3 Advanced Composites, D.K. Thomas, RAE, Farnborough. Report 37 Polymers in Aerospace Applications, W.W. Wright, Report 4 Liquid Crystal Polymers, M.K. Cox, ICI, Wilton. University of Surrey. Report 5 CAD/CAM in the Polymer Industry, N.W. Sandland Report 39 Polymers in Chemically Resistant Applications, and M.J. Sebborn, Cambridge Applied Technology. D. Cattell, Cattell Consultancy Services. Report 8 Engineering Thermoplastics, I.T. Barrie, Consultant. Report 41 Failure of Plastics, S. Turner, Queen Mary College. Report 11 Communications Applications of Polymers, Report 42 Polycarbonates, R. Pakull, U. Grigo, D. Freitag, Bayer R. Spratling, British Telecom. AG. Report 12 Process Control in the Plastics Industry, Report 43 Polymeric Materials from Renewable Resources, R.F. Evans, Engelmann & Buckham Ancillaries. J.M. Methven, UMIST. Report 44 Flammability and Flame Retardants in Plastics, Volume 2 J. Green, FMC Corp. Report 13 Injection Moulding of Engineering Thermoplastics, Report 45 Composites - Tooling and Component Processing, A.F. Whelan, London School of Polymer Technology. N.G. Brain, Tooltex. Report 14 Polymers and Their Uses in the Sports and Leisure Report 46 Quality Today in Polymer Processing, S.H. Coulson, Industries, A.L. Cox and R.P. Brown, Rapra J.A. Cousans, Exxon Chemical International Marketing. Technology Ltd. Report 47 Chemical Analysis of Polymers, G. Lawson, Leicester Report 15 Polyurethane, Materials, Processing and Polytechnic. Applications, G. Woods, Consultant. Report 16 Polyetheretherketone, D.J. Kemmish, ICI, Wilton. Volume 5 Report 17 Extrusion, G.M. Gale, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 49 Blends and Alloys of Engineering Thermoplastics, Report 18 Agricultural and Horticultural Applications of H.T. van de Grampel, General Electric Plastics BV. Polymers, J.C. Garnaud, International Committee for Report 50 Automotive Applications of Polymers II, Plastics in Agriculture. A.N.A. Elliott, Consultant. Report 19 Recycling and Disposal of Plastics Packaging, Report 51 Biomedical Applications of Polymers, C.G. Gebelein, R.C. Fox, Plas/Tech Ltd. Youngstown State University / Florida Atlantic University. Report 20 Pultrusion, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey. Report 52 Polymer Supported Chemical Reactions, P. Hodge, Report 21 Materials Handling in the Polymer Industry, University of Manchester. H. Hardy, Chronos Richardson Ltd. Report 53 Weathering of Polymers, S.M. Halliwell, Building Report 22 Electronics Applications of Polymers, M.T.Goosey, Research Establishment. Plessey Research (Caswell) Ltd. Report 54 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, A.R. Nutt, Report 23 Offshore Applications of Polymers, J.W.Brockbank, Arnold Nutt & Co. and J. Wade. Avon Industrial Polymers Ltd. Report 24 Recent Developments in Materials for Food Report 55 Computer Modelling of Polymer Processing, Packaging, R.A. Roberts, Pira Packaging Division. E. Andreassen, Å. Larsen and E.L. Hinrichsen, Senter for Industriforskning, Norway. Volume 3 Report 56 Plastics in High Temperature Applications, J. Maxwell, Consultant. Report 25 Foams and Blowing Agents, J.M. Methven, Cellcom Report 57 Joining of Plastics, K.W. Allen, City University. Technology Associates. Report 58 Physical Testing of Rubber, R.P. Brown, Rapra Report 26 Polymers and Structural Composites in Civil Technology Ltd. Engineering, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey. Report 59 Polyimides - Materials, Processing and Applications, Report 27 Injection Moulding of Rubber, M.A. Wheelans, A.J. Kirby, Du Pont (U.K.) Ltd. Consultant. Report 60 Physical Testing of Thermoplastics, S.W. Hawley, Report 28 Adhesives for Structural and Engineering Rapra Technology Ltd. Applications, C. O’Reilly, Loctite (Ireland) Ltd. Report 29 Polymers in Marine Applications, C.F.Britton, Volume 6 Corrosion Monitoring Consultancy. Report 30 Non-destructive Testing of Polymers, W.N. Reynolds, Report 61 Food Contact Polymeric Materials, J.A. Sidwell, National NDT Centre, Harwell. Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 31 Silicone Rubbers, B.R. Trego and H.W.Winnan, Report 62 Coextrusion, D. Djordjevic, Klöckner ER-WE-PA GmbH. Dow Corning Ltd. Report 63 Conductive Polymers II, R.H. Friend, University of Report 32 Fluoroelastomers - Properties and Applications, Cambridge, Cavendish Laboratory. D. Cook and M. Lynn, 3M United Kingdom Plc and Report 64 Designing with Plastics, P.R. Lewis, The Open University. 3M Belgium SA. Report 33 Polyamides, R.S. Williams and T. Daniels, Report 65 Decorating and Coating of Plastics, P.J. Robinson, T & N Technology Ltd. and BIP Chemicals Ltd. International Automotive Design. Report 34 Extrusion of Rubber, J.G.A. Lovegrove, Nova Report 66 Reinforced Thermoplastics - Composition, Processing Petrochemicals Inc. and Applications, P.G. Kelleher, New Jersey Polymer Extension Center at Stevens Institute of Technology. Report 35 Polymers in Household Electrical Goods, D.Alvey, Hotpoint Ltd. Report 67 Plastics in Thermal and Acoustic Building Insulation, V.L. Kefford, MRM Engineering Consultancy. Report 36 Developments in Additives to Meet Health and Environmental Concerns, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Report 68 Cure Assessment by Physical and Chemical Technology Ltd. Techniques, B.G. Willoughby, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 69 Toxicity of Plastics and Rubber in Fire, P.J. Fardell, Report 94 Compressive Behaviour of Composites, Building Research Establishment, Fire Research Station. C. Soutis, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine. Report 70 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Polymers, M.E. Adams, D.J. Buckley, R.E. Colborn, W.P. England Report 95 Thermal Analysis of Polymers, M. P. Sepe, Dickten & and D.N. Schissel, General Electric Corporate Research Masch Manufacturing Co. and Development Center. Report 96 Polymeric Seals and Sealing Technology, J.A. Hickman, Report 71 Rotational Moulding, R.J. Crawford, The Queen’s St Clair (Polymers) Ltd. University of Belfast. Report 72 Advances in Injection Moulding, C.A. Maier, Volume 9 Econology Ltd. Report 97 Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory and Innovation, Part II: Processing, Bonding, Fire Volume 7 Retardants, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster. Report 98 Advances in Biodegradable Polymers, G.F. Moore & Report 73 Reactive Processing of Polymers, M.W.R. Brown, S.M. Saunders, Rapra Technology Ltd. P.D. Coates and A.F. Johnson, IRC in Polymer Science and Technology, University of Bradford. Report 99 Recycling of Rubber, H.J. Manuel and W. Dierkes, Vredestein Rubber Recycling B.V. Report 74 Speciality Rubbers, J.A. Brydson. Report 100 Photoinitiated Polymerisation - Theory and Report 75 Plastics and the Environment, I. Boustead, Boustead Applications, J.P. Fouassier, Ecole Nationale Supérieure Consulting Ltd. de Chimie, Mulhouse. Report 76 Polymeric Precursors for Ceramic Materials, Report 101 Solvent-Free Adhesives, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller R.C.P. Cubbon. Company. Report 77 Advances in Tyre Mechanics, R.A. Ridha, M. Theves, Report 102 Plastics in Pressure Pipes, T. Stafford, Rapra Goodyear Technical Center. Technology Ltd. Report 78 PVC - Compounds, Processing and Applications, Report 103 Gas Assisted Moulding, T.C. Pearson, Gas Injection Ltd. J.Leadbitter, J.A. Day, J.L. Ryan, Hydro Polymers Ltd. Report 104 Plastics Profile Extrusion, R.J. Kent, Tangram Report 79 Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory Technology Ltd. and Innovation, Part I: Vulcanising Systems, Report 105 Rubber Extrusion Theory and Development, Antidegradants and Particulate Fillers for General B.G. Crowther. Purpose Rubbers, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster. Report 106 Properties and Applications of Elastomeric Report 80 Anti-Corrosion Polymers: PEEK, PEKK and Other Polysulfides, T.C.P. Lee, Oxford Brookes University. Polyaryls, G. Pritchard, Kingston University. Report 107 High Performance Polymer Fibres, P.R. Lewis, Report 81 Thermoplastic Elastomers - Properties and Applications, The Open University. J.A. Brydson. Report 108 Chemical Characterisation of Polyurethanes, Report 82 Advances in Blow Moulding Process Optimization, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd. Andres Garcia-Rejon,Industrial Materials Institute, National Research Council Canada. Volume 10 Report 83 Molecular Weight Characterisation of Synthetic Polymers, S.R. Holding and E.Meehan, Rapra Report 109 Rubber Injection Moulding - A Practical Guide, Technology Ltd. and Polymer Laboratories Ltd. J.A. Lindsay. Report 84 Rheology and its Role in Plastics Processing, Report 110 Long-Term and Accelerated Ageing Tests on Rubbers, P. Prentice, The Nottingham Trent University. R.P. Brown, M.J. Forrest and G. Soulagnet, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 111 Polymer Product Failure, P.R. Lewis, Volume 8 The Open University. Report 85 Ring Opening Polymerisation, N. Spassky, Université Report 112 Polystyrene - Synthesis, Production and Applications, Pierre et Marie Curie. J.R. Wünsch, BASF AG. Report 86 High Performance Engineering Plastics, Report 113 Rubber-Modified Thermoplastics, H. Keskkula, D.J. Kemmish, Victrex Ltd. University of Texas at Austin. Report 87 Rubber to Metal Bonding, B.G. Crowther, Rapra Report 114 Developments in Polyacetylene - Nanopolyacetylene, Technology Ltd. V.M. Kobryanskii, Russian Academy of Sciences. Report 115 Metallocene-Catalysed Polymerisation, W. Kaminsky, Report 88 Plasticisers - Selection, Applications and Implications, University of Hamburg. A.S. Wilson. Report 116 Compounding in Co-rotating Twin-Screw Extruders, Report 89 Polymer Membranes - Materials, Structures and Y. Wang, Tunghai University. Separation Performance, T. deV. Naylor, The Smart Chemical Company. Report 117 Rapid Prototyping, Tooling and Manufacturing, R.J.M. Hague and P.E.Reeves, Edward Mackenzie Report 90 Rubber Mixing, P.R. Wood. Consulting. Report 91 Recent Developments in Epoxy Resins, I. Hamerton, Report 118 Liquid Crystal Polymers - Synthesis, Properties and University of Surrey. Applications, D. Coates, CRL Ltd. Report 92 Continuous Vulcanisation of Elastomer Profiles, Report 119 Rubbers in Contact with Food, M.J. Forrest and A. Hill, Meteor Gummiwerke. J.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 93 Advances in Thermoforming, J.L. Throne, Sherwood Report 120 Electronics Applications of Polymers II, M.T. Goosey, Technologies Inc. Shipley Ronal. Volume 11 Report 126 Composites for Automotive Applications, C.D. Rudd, University of Nottingham. Report 127 Polymers in Medical Applications, B.J. Lambert and Report 121 Polyamides as Engineering Thermoplastic Materials, F.-W. Tang, Guidant Corp., and W.J. Rogers, Consultant. I.B. Page, BIP Ltd. Report 128 Solid State NMR of Polymers, P.A. Mirau, Report 122 Flexible Packaging - Adhesives, Coatings and Lucent Technologies. Processes, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company. Report 129 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Photo-oxidation, Report 123 Polymer Blends, L.A. Utracki, National Research D.C. Wright. Council Canada. Report 130 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Chemical Attack, D.C. Wright. Report 124 Sorting of Waste Plastics for Recycling, R.D. Pascoe, Report 131 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Thermo-oxidation, University of Exeter. D.C. Wright. Report 125 Structural Studies of Polymers by Solution NMR, Report 132 Stabilisers for Polyolefins, C. Kröhnke and F. Werner, H.N. Cheng, Hercules Incorporated. Clariant Huningue SA. Titles Available in the Current Volume Volume 12 Report 133 Advances in Automation for Plastics Injection Moulding, J. Mallon, Yushin Inc. Report 134 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy of Polymers, J.L. Koenig, Case Western Reserve University. Report 135 Polymers in Sport and Leisure, R.P. Brown. Report 136 Radiation Curing, R.S. Davidson, DavRad Services. Report 137 Silicone Elastomers, P. Jerschow, Wacker-Chemie GmbH. Report 138 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, N. Chaiear, Khon Kaen University. Report 139 Rubber Analysis - Polymers, Compounds and Products, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd. Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance M.S. Evans (Kumho European Technical Centre) ISBN: 1-85957-306-1 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance Contents 1. Scope ......................................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 3 3. Tyres.......................................................................................................................................................... 3 3.1 Invention......................................................................................................................................... 3 3.2 Components .................................................................................................................................... 4 3.2.1 Inner Liner.......................................................................................................................... 4 3.2.2 Carcass................................................................................................................................ 4 3.2.3 Bead.................................................................................................................................... 5 3.2.4 Apex ................................................................................................................................... 5 3.2.5 Sidewall.............................................................................................................................. 5 3.2.6 Belt ..................................................................................................................................... 5 3.2.7 Cap-Ply............................................................................................................................... 6 3.2.8 Tread................................................................................................................................... 6 4. Tyre Performance.................................................................................................................................... 6 4.1 Traction........................................................................................................................................... 7 4.2 Coefficient of Rolling Friction (Rolling Resistance) ..................................................................... 8 4.3 Treadwear and Durability............................................................................................................... 9 4.4 Noise ............................................................................................................................................. 10 4.5 Global Properties ...........................................................................................................................11 5. Ingredients...............................................................................................................................................11 5.1 Polymers ........................................................................................................................................11 5.1.1 Natural Rubber ..................................................................................................................11 5.1.2 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber ............................................................................................... 12 5.1.4 Butadiene Rubber............................................................................................................. 12 5.1.5 Butyl Rubbers................................................................................................................... 12 5.2 Fillers ............................................................................................................................................ 13 5.2.1 Carbon Black.................................................................................................................... 13 5.2.2 Silica................................................................................................................................. 13 5.2.3 Other Fillers...................................................................................................................... 14 5.3 Process Aids.................................................................................................................................. 15 5.4 Antidegradants.............................................................................................................................. 15 5.5 Adhesion Promoters...................................................................................................................... 15 5.6 Curatives....................................................................................................................................... 16 5.7 Fabric ............................................................................................................................................ 16 5.8 Processing..................................................................................................................................... 17 6. Compound Properties ........................................................................................................................... 18 6.1 Rheometry..................................................................................................................................... 18 1 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance 6.2 Ingredient Dispersion.................................................................................................................... 18 6.3 Physical Properties........................................................................................................................ 18 6.4 Adhesion....................................................................................................................................... 19 6.5 Viscoelasticity............................................................................................................................... 19 7. Future...................................................................................................................................................... 20 7.1 Smart Materials and Tyres............................................................................................................ 20 7.2 Run-Flat Tyres and Deflation Warning Systems .......................................................................... 21 7.3 Mathematical Modelling............................................................................................................... 21 7.4 Environmental Issues.................................................................................................................... 22 7.4.1 Chemicals......................................................................................................................... 22 7.4.2 Rubber Recovery from Scrap Tyres................................................................................. 22 References from the Rapra Abstracts Database ........................................................................................ 23 Subject Index.......................................................................................................................................................119 The views and opinions expressed by authors in Rapra Review Reports do not necessarily reflect those of Rapra Technology Limited or the editor. The series is published on the basis that no responsibility or liability of any nature shall attach to Rapra Technology Limited arising out of or in connection with any utilisation in any form of any material contained therein. 2 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance 1 Scope Compounders try to understand how the various ingredients combine to produce certain material properties through carefully designed experiments. This is an overview of the factors a tyre compounder Years of experience of testing and experimentation are or tyre engineer has to consider when developing employed to evaluate speculative options. After this compounds for tyres to meet the demanding early laboratory stage the problems start. To magnify performance needs of the 21st century. laboratory mixes up to factory scales adds a whole new dimension. Finally, when the tyres are produced, the Tyre products include: performance may be evaluated in a whole gamut of ways. It is almost impossible to track all the many • small implement tyres, through bicycle to subjective and objective tyre ratings back to those motorcycle tyres. original simple laboratory tests let alone the raw material formulations themselves. Vast databases and • the more abundant motorsport, passenger car and ‘intelligent’ software packages may offer some hope truck tyres (where most of the emphasis for this in the future to link raw material recipes to the review is placed) processability of components and finally to tyre performance, but in the end it is down to the experience • the range extends up through large agricultural and of compounders to interpret the results of tyre tests. earthmoving vehicle tyres to the field of aviation tyres. The following review is therefore intended to show The subject matter to be covered will include the tyre how experts skilled in the art have, and are still itself and how the needs and hence the formulations of attempting, with a reasonably high degree of success, each component within the tyre vary. The many to propose formulations that offer ultimate performance apparently conflicting needs placed on tyre compounds to all the components within a tyre’s structure. It then by users of tyres and the range from which ingredients goes on to show how some recent advances in materials can be selected are discussed. This review will also and processes are being exploited to further enhance consider the tyre performance characteristics the performance of tyres. themselves, how they are measured and understood in terms of the technology of the tyre, and how the compound formulations play an important role in determining the ultimate performance of tyres. 3 Tyres The future for tyres and materials is not static but continuously evolving as commercial, environmental, 3.1 Invention legislative and technical needs dictate. A few ideas for the future are explored. The idea of a solid wheel has been around for well over 5000 years but a Scotsman, Richard Thompson 1822- 1873, first patented the concept of a pneumatic tyre in 1845. His invention was for an elastic bearing to be fitted 2 Introduction around a carriage wheel so that it could be filled with springs, stuffed with horsehair or even inflated with air. Compounders like to think that the creation of rubber The claim was for the carriage on which it was fitted to formulations is somewhat akin to the art of cooking. be drawn along using less power and to make it less Using selected ingredients they carefully blend and noisy when in motion. This original idea was soon cook them in such a way as to produce the desired forgotten but then in 1888 it was reinvented by another effects. Science can explain most if not all of the Scottish gentleman, John Boyd Dunlop. He designed a chemistry and mathematical modelling is now going a new bicycle tyre that would roll more smoothly. Dunlop long way towards predicting performance from invented and patented a system where air is contained material properties. In the end, however, the skill and within a rubber and fabric tube fitted to the edge of a experience of the raw material supplier and the tyre wheel. During the testing stage the tyre was found to compounder is the only sure way to push back the roll well over cobbles, going further and more smoothly frontiers of tyre performance. Novel and exciting than the conventional solid tyres. The most valuable materials appear at frequent intervals offering new material of all in the development history of the tyre is opportunities to the compounder and continually raising therefore that free and abundant gas that is all around the levels of tyre performance to new heights. us, air. Air contained within the tyre provides additional 3