Takashi Inoguchi Typology of Asian Societies Bottom-Up Perspective and Evidence-Based Approach Typology of Asian Societies Takashi Inoguchi Typology of Asian Societies Bottom-Up Perspective and Evidence-Based Approach Takashi Inoguchi Institute of Asian Cultures J.F. Oberlin University Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan ISBN 978-981-19-5465-8 ISBN 978-981-19-5466-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5466-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Preface What are the key features of Asian societies? Some adjectives come up immediately: different, diverse, and difficult to characterize in one phrase. Indeed, specialists in geography, anthropology, demography, geology, climatology, agronomy, religious studies, gender studies, sociology, economics, and political science have had so many things to say on this seemingly simple question. My interest in typologies of Asian societies comes from two sources: Quality of Life (QOL) studies and political science. QOL studies in Asia are relatively new (Inoguchi and Estes, 2017; Shrotryia and Mazumdar, 2017; Mangahas and De Jesus, 2017). They began in Hong Kong and Singapore, gradually diffusing to Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and more recently to China and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) societies. The research field into QOL is characterized by an evidence-based approach largely from medical science and psychology. It is note- worthy that QOL studies tend to focus on one Asian society at a time, rather than on a number of societies in Asia. They are interested in the physical and mental aspects of life quality, like weight, height, pulse, blood pressure, heartbeat, with those areas that normally fall under the purview of internal medicine as well as in more mental and neuroscientific aspects of human life. Medical data have tended to be assembled on a country basis with QOL data treated as one or many items in such lists. It is no less noteworthy that QOL studies have tended to be interested in one composite item of data, like high or medium or low in terms of well-being, health, and happiness. It is largely because QOL studies have tended to follow, curiously enough, the famous opening sentence of Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina: “Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” The search for happiness has led QOL studies to choose one answer by asking a direct question— such as “Overall, how happy are you?”—and then providing six options: very happy, somewhat happy, neither happy nor unhappy, somewhat unhappy, very unhappy, and don’t know. It seems that QOL study specialists take the first part of Tolstoy’s observation as a primary line of academic enquiry. If QOL studies have a tendency to search for one composite data, then political science has a tendency to search for an often normatively tinged research strategy of v vi Preface identifying an ideal type, àla Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capi- talism or Aristotelian typology of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy or American social science-coined bifurcated typology of dictatorship versus democracy, with varieties of factors causing such diversification. To make a long story short, as a political scientist, dealing with QOL in Asian societies east of the Middle East, this book is a presentation of my research and findings on this topic. Shibuya, Japan Takashi Inoguchi References Inoguchi, Takashi and Richard J. Estes (2017) “The History of Well-Being in East Asia: From Global Conflict to Global Leadership,” in Richard J. Estes and M. Joseph Sirgy, eds., The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History, Switzerland: Springer, 301-348. Mangahas, Mahar and Edilberto C. De Jesus (2017) “The History of Well-Being in Southeast Asia,” in Richard J. Estes and M. Joseph Sirgy, eds., The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History, Switzerland: Springer, 381–408. Shrotryia, Vijay Kumar and Krishna Mazumdar (2017) “The History of Well-Being in South Asia,” in Richard J. Estes and M. Joseph Sirgy, eds., The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History, Switzerland: Springer, 349-380. Tolstoy, Leo (2014) Anna Karenina (translated by R. Bartlett), Oxford: Oxford University Press. Acknowledgements Ever since I vaguely envisaged a research project surrounding what I later called the Asia Barometer Survey in the mid-1970s, it had never occurred to me that the project would take so many years. My modest ambition was that given the already apparent success of the Eurobarometer in the 1970s, an Asia Barometer survey project should stand forth as well. It was in spring 1979 that I asked a bundle of questions to Dr. Jacques-René Rabier at L’Institut francais d’opinion publique in Paris. He was one of the founders of the European Community’s (which later became the European Union’s) Eurobarometer. His advice on questionnaire formulation and institutional building was most inspiring and helpful. I am profoundly grateful to him. But hope was hope. My hope was almost shattered thereafter because securing funds for such a project has been very difficult. The Japanese Ministry of Education’s Scientific Research Grant scheme does not have much scope for an Asia-wide empirical survey and analysis project in social science. Its priorities are placed on natural science, medical science, and engineering. It was a bit like being in Samuel Beckett’s play Waiting for Godot for two decades. It was Emiko Tomiiye of the Nihon Research Center, a business and market opinion research company, who helped me identify and collect corporate donations. Together, in 2002, we approached some 20-odd business corporations for funding, returning a second time with a request for additional funds. This first group of corpo- rate donations allowed me to carry out the first Asia-wide survey in 2003 in 10 Asian countries. My heartfelt gratitude goes to Ms Tomiiye. In the following year, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asked me to conduct a similar survey in Asian coun- tries in the way I best felt possible. I followed through with this survey. Again, I express my heartfelt gratitude to Ambassador Makio Miyakawa. Then, at long last, in the following year, I was successful in securing a Scientific Research Grant that allowed the project to continue for the next four years. I am genuinely grateful to the Scientific Research Grant committee. The implementation of the project was from 2005 till 2008 in terms of the grant money. The six rounds of the Asia-wide survey were based on a similar questionnaire, although between 5% and 10% of the questions were tailored according to each of the four Asian sub-regions: East, vii viii Acknowledgements Southeast, South, and Central Asia. The surveys were very large, registering approx- imately 60,000 respondents in 32 societies (29 Asian and 3 Asian neighbors, i.e., the United States, Australia, and Russia), with nationwide random sampling, in prin- ciple, conducted in face-to-face interviews. The sample sizes ranged from 800 for small societies like Brunei and Bhutan to 2,000 respondents in places like India, China, and Japan. I register my profound gratitude to colleagues and friends all over Asia. In total, four volumes were published, one after each of the four surveys, and they are as follows: Takashi Inoguchi, Miguel Basanez, Akihiko Tanaka, and Timur Dadabaev, eds., Values and Life Styles in Urban Asia: A Cross-Cultural Analysis and Sourcebook Based on the Asia Barometer Survey of 2003, Mexico City, Siglo XXI Editores for the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2005. Takashi Inoguchi, Akihiko Tanaka, Shigeto Sonoda, and Timur Dadabaev, eds., Human Beliefs and Values in Striding Asia: East Asia in Focus: Country Profiles, Thematic Analyses, and Sourcebook Based on the Asia Barometer Survey of 2004, Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2006. Takashi Inoguchi, ed., Human Beliefs and Values in Incredible Asia: South and Central Asia in Focus: Country Profiles and Thematic Analyses Based on the Asia Barometer Survey of 2005, Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2008. Takashi Inoguchi, ed., Human Beliefs and Values in East and Southeast Asia in Transition: 13 Country Profiles on the Basis of the Asia Barometer Surveys of 2006 and 2007, Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2009. For the publication of these four volumes in book form, I express my heartfelt gratitude to Professor-Ambassador Miguel Basanez for his indispensable advice and help on editing and publishing. I am no less grateful to Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan, who not only gave advice about the vital importance of publication of the Asia Barometer Survey project but also for providing a Foreword to Volume One. Also, I express my profound gratitude to Peter J. Katzenstein of Cornell University for writing a Foreword to Volume Two. In acknowledging praise received for these four volumes, I am most grateful to Lucian W. Pye of M. I. T., Jean Blondel of the European University Institute, Russell Dalton of the University of California, Irvine, Hans-Dieter Klingemann of the Social Science Research Center Berlin, Marshall Bouton of the Chicago Council for Global Affairs, Ashis Nandy of the Center for the Study of Developing Societies, New Delhi, Akio Kawato, Ambassador to Uzbekistan, and Wolfgang Jagodzinski of the University of Cologne. My utmost gratitude goes naturally to those who contributed excellent chapters to each of these four volumes, published respectively in 2005, 2006, 2008, and 2009, and who worked under the pressures of analyzing tons of survey data and meeting deadlines for chapter manuscripts: Timur Dadabaev, Akihiko Tanaka, Guo Dingping, Myungsoon Shin, Chaiwat Khamchoo, Aaron Stern, Johan Saravanamuttu, Shigeto Sonoda, Myat Thein, Sanjay Kumar, Sirimal Abeyratne, Daesong Hyun, Do Manh Hong, Bounlouane Douangngeune, Kheang Un, Pratikno, I Keut Putra Erawan, Lydia N. Yu-Jose, Hj Hanzah Sulaiman, Zen-U Lucian Hotta, Kazufumi Manabe, Kensuke Okada, Matthew Carlson, Akiko Fukushima, Misa Okabe, Imtiaz Ahmed, Dorji Penjore, Faisal Bari, Adeel Faheem, Purnendra Jain, Krishna Hachhethu, Muhammad Acknowledgements ix Jamshed Khan, Nargis Kassenova, Termirlan Moldogaziev, Turtogtoh Janar, Muzaf- fardjon R. Khudoikulov, Steven R. Reed, Le Hong Giang, Ming Shu, Chua Beng Huat, Ming Sing, David W.F. Huang, Seiji Fujii, Jennifer Santiago Oreta, Azeem Fazwan Ahmad Farouk. In carrying out a big project like this, diligence and perseverance are indispens- able in each phase of securing funding (20 years of “Waiting for Godot”), imple- menting the surveys within 6 years, publishing four conference proceedings within 6 years, and publishing five monographs (taking 14 years). I was fortunate in reaching this stage of monograph publication thanks to extraordinary colleagues and friends providing me with encouragement, advice and help. Four volumes have already come out with another volume in this AsiaBarometer project awaiting publication in 2022. These five monographs are as follows: Shin, Doh Chull and Takashi Inoguchi, eds.,TheQualityofLifeinConfucianAsia: From Physical Happiness to Subjective Well-Being, Dordrecht: Springer, 2008. Inoguchi, Takashi and Seiji Fujii, The Quality of Life in Asia: A Comparison of Quality of Life in Asia, Dordrecht: Springer, 2013. Inoguchi, Takashi and Yasuharu Tokuda, eds., Trust with Asian Characteristics: Interpersonal and Institutional, Dordrecht: Springer, 2017. Inoguchi, Takashi, Exit, Voice and Loyalty in Asia: Individual Choice under 32 Societal Umbrellas, Dordrecht: Springer, 2017. Inoguchi, Takashi, Typology of Asian Societies: Bottom-Up Perspective and Evidence-Based Approach, Springer, forthcoming in 2021 or 2022. A brief note on each of the five monographs is in order. Doh Chull Shin of the University of California, Irvine, introduced me in the 2010s to The International Society for Quality of Life Studies and co-edited the above monograph on how East Asians conceive happiness. I am grateful to him for opening the door to monograph publication thereafter. Seiji Fujii of the University of Niigata Prefecture (Ph.D. in economics at the University of California, Irvine) carried out virtually all data analysis in the AsiaBarometer Survey project. My second book with Seiji Fujii is the most compre- hensive in scope on quality of life in Asia. Until today this represents the only solid evidence-based quality of life analysis covering all of Asia, east of the Middle East, in 32 societies, including the United States, Australia, and Russia, Asia’s neighbors. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to him. Yasuharu Tokuda, MD, MPH, Ph.D., president of Muribushi Okinawa Medical Clinic and Training Center, Okinawa, co-edited the third book on interpersonal and institutional trust. Working with him has enriched my understanding of both types of trust. This book has exposed the weakness of posing abstract questions without providing some concrete examples or situations to frame such questions. Richard Nisbett, a psychologist at the University of Michigan, and Joseph Henrich, an evolu- tionary biologist at Harvard University, raise such warnings regarding questionnaire formulations. The fourth book,Exit,VoiceandLoyaltyinAsia, examines empirically how Asians face deteriorating societal and organizational situations, that is, exit, voice and loyalty. Suppose you ask an agency in the bureaucracy for permission to do something. Their x Acknowledgements response is to “wait for a while.” What would you do? Choose from one of seven options: (1) bribe an official; (2) write a letter; (3) use connections; (4) nothing can be done; (5) wait and hope patiently; (6) act without permission; (7) or don’t know. After analyzing 32 societal responses, sharp comparisons are made focusing on respondents from India, China, Japan, the United States, Russia, and Australia. The fifth book, Typology of Asian Societies, argues for both a bottom-up perspec- tive and evidence-based approach. I believe that much of the typologies of Asian societies tend to adopt a top-down perspective and ideal-type approach. By so doing, systematic empirical comparisons and bottom-up perspectives are not appreciated and given due consideration. In addition to these listed academics, I owe an enormous debt to those who have worked for the project across the four universities I have had affiliations with: the University of Tokyo, Chuo University, the University of Niigata Prefecture, and J. F. Oberlin University, Tokyo. The timing of the Scientific Research Grant came 1 month before my retirement from the University of Tokyo, where I had spent 20 years of waiting. Over the course of the project, I changed university affiliation twice, transitions that posed great challenges to the running of the project. My gratitude is profound to those who helped my project run seamlessly across these changes. The hard work and commitment of others to my project made me more diligent and perseverant in executing the project through its many publications of which this book may be the last. Scientific Research Grants (#17002002, 2005–2008; #21243010, 2009–2012; 19H00583, 2019–2023) were received at the University of Tokyo, Chuo Univer- sity, the University of Niigata Prefecture, and J. F. Oberlin University, Tokyo, and were implemented at the last three universities. I gratefully acknowledge the following publishers and journals for graciously granting permission: Asia Barometer English Master Questionnaire 2006. Inoguchi, T., Tanaka, A., Sonoda, S., & Dadabaev, T. (Eds.). (2009). Human Beliefs and Values in East and Southeast Asia in Transition: 13 Country Profiles on the Basis of the AsiaBarometer Surveys of 2006 and 2007. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, pp. 265–284. Table 2.1 List of multilateral treaties covered in the dataset. Inoguchi, Takashi and Lien Thi Quynh Le (2021) Digitized Statecraft in Multi- lateral Treaty Participation: Global Quasi-Legislative Behavior of 193 Sovereign States, Singapore: Springer Nature, p. 16.