The Project Gutenberg EBook of Typesetting, by A. A. Stewart This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: Typesetting A primer of information about working at the case, justifying, spacing, correcting, making-up, and other operations employed in setting type by hand Author: A. A. Stewart Release Date: June 27, 2014 [EBook #46113] [Last updated: June 30, 2014] Language: English Character set encoding: ASCII *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPESETTING *** Produced by Barbara Tozier, Andrew Wainwright, Bill Tozier and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Transcriber’s Note This book contains numerous examples of typesetting styles and techniques, including spacing, justification and use of fonts. Efforts have been made to reproduce these examples as faithfully as possible, but there will inevitably be some minor differences from the original. For this reason, scanned images of the original pages have been included. Links to these pages can be found in the right hand margin of this eBook. Details of corrections made can be found in the Notes at the end. Book cover This cover was created by the transcribers and is placed in the public domain. TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART II. No. 16 TYPESETTING A PRIMER OF INFORMATION ABOUT WORKING AT THE CASE, JUSTIFYING, SPACING, CORRECTING, MAKING-UP, AND OTHER OPERATIONS EMPLOYED IN SETTING TYPE BY HAND BY A. A. STEWART Publishers' Logo [Page 1] T PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA 1919 COPYRIGHT, 1919 UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA CHICAGO, ILL. Composition and electrotypes contributed by The Frank D. Jacobs Company Philadelphia PREFACE HERE is a prevalent notion that setting type by hand is not now as important a part of the printer’s vocation as it was years ago. Ingenious composing machines now perform so much of the work of putting into printable shape the literature of the world that it is often assumed the hand compositor’s occupation is fast disappearing and does not offer much inducement for an ambitious young man to follow seriously. This is a mistaken notion entertained only by those who have a limited conception of printing craftsmanship and its possibilities for the exercise of individual skill. It is true that the greater part of the composition for ordinary printing is now done by machines, just as in other lines of industry machines are relieving human hands of the drudgery in large-scale production by multiplying products through mechanical operations. But that the work of the hand compositor is any less important now than it ever has been is far from the fact. Behind the great volume of machine work, and absolutely essential for any effective use of machine product, there is greater need than ever before of the hand-work and head-work of trained compositors. One of the great defects of machine composition is its lack of intelligent, trained craftsmanship in typography. Too often it is the work of machine-thinking operators rather than of intelligent compositors trained to use the machine to increase their product and make it of better effect and worth. Training in hand composition should be a prerequisite for machine keyboard operation. In no other way can the niceties of typography be so thoroughly or conveniently learned as with composing stick and type case. While hand composition is the particular kind of work the author had in mind when writing the following pages, many of the instructions and suggestions given apply directly to machine- set matter. Expertness and correctness are now demanded of all workmen; correct composition is required from the machine operator even more insistently than from the hand compositor, since the work of the former cannot be so readily rectified. The first and second volumes of this series, “Type” and “Compositor’s Tools,” dealing more fully with the tools and materials used, should be read in connection with this volume. CONTENTS PAGE Introductory 7 Preliminary Suggestions 8 Learning The Case 10 Units For Measuring 14 Spaces and Quads 15 [Page 2] [Page 3] [Page 4] [Page 5] A Simple Spacing Table 17 Hair Spaces And Justifiers 20 Leads And Slugs 21 Setting The Composing Stick 22 Use Of The Composing Rule 24 Setting Type 25 Justifying The Lines 27 Emptying The Stick 28 Tying Up The Page 31 Taking Proofs 34 Making Corrections 37 Importance Of Uniform Spacing 42 Rules For Spacing 43 Spacing Of Italic 48 Spacing Capital Letters 49 Wide Spacing 51 Paragraph and Other Indentions 52 Setting Poetry 55 Headings 58 Initial Letters 59 Making Up Pages 61 Washing Type 67 Distributing 69 Supplementary Reading 74 Review Questions 75 Glossary 85 [Page 7] T TYPESETTING Introductory HE best and most useful printing is that which has been done by typography; and the best typography has been, and still is, that done by type, hand-set and prepared for the press by well-trained compositors. Good typesetting must be the product of an educated, intelligent mind as well as a skillful hand. It calls for close attention to practical details. It demands the exercise of literary and artistic sense which perceives the requirements of legibility and coherence in thought and the orderly arrangement of words and lines necessary to make the printed page of the greatest usefulness. A composition of movable types has many advantages over other methods of preparing forms for printing. It offers the readiest means for securing a page of correct reading matter. The mechanical operations are relatively simple. No other process will produce so good a printing surface as quickly or as inexpensively as the typographic method. Serious faults of the original copy, in spelling, use of points, words, phrases, in paragraphing, in spacing of lines, in arrangement of headings, and other errors can be readily corrected in type. The page can be made longer by leading, or shorter by taking out leads. Any of these changes can be made with the utmost freedom, in a manner that is not practicable in any other branch of the graphic arts. The engraved plate, whether produced by mechanical or by chemical means, when once made, can be changed only in minor details. What is cut must stay; any considerable variation from the first impression can be made only by great skill and by slow processes. Typography is peculiarly the vehicle for printing literature quickly and effectively. Considering the great influence it can wield, nothing could be simpler than the tools it employs. An intelligent boy of fifteen years, after a little practice, can set type and print it with a press, and the product will be as acceptable as that done by a workman of long experience. Yet typesetting is not an occupation easily mastered. To find profit and satisfaction in the work an apprentice must acquire a broad knowledge of language and literature and develop an interest in subjects relating to art and design. Although the mechanics of his work are given the chief consideration in the following pages, he should remember that his principal working material is Language and his real tools are alphabets and words. [Page 8] Preliminary Suggestions There are several habits which the young compositor should begin to acquire at the outset if he hopes to make his work agreeable and successful. The mention of these may seem like an unnecessary repetition of trite injunctions, but in work of the kind upon which he is engaged their practice is particularly important. The compositor’s work is one of many details, and careless habits quickly lead to unprofitable results and disappointment. The chief of the good habits may be enumerated as: 1. The habit of silence while at work. A chattering person in the composing room is a nuisance. 2. The habit of keeping materials cleared up. A confusion of articles on the workstand will greatly retard his work. Keep items of the same kind grouped together as much as possible. 3. The habit of picking up at once type and other articles dropped on the floor. A type stepped on is spoiled. 4. The habit of not putting anything in the mouth with soiled hands. Always wash the hands before eating. 5. The habit of standing on both feet and not leaning over the workstand. 6. The habit of dressing so as to be comfortable and reasonably clean. Standing at the case Fig. 1 A compositor should stand comfortably on both feet in front of his case, just a little to the left of the center, and the case should be adjusted to allow free motion of his right arm over the front of the case. This will enable him to shift his weight from one foot to the other occasionally as he reaches from one side of the case to the other. This habit is one that will have to be learned with some effort, but it will mean much to his health and comfort. The coat should be removed before beginning work, and the shirt sleeves should be rolled high enough to avoid interfering with the work on the galley. A work apron or a loose-fitting coat with short sleeves is advised in order to protect the front of the usual clothing and to provide an extra pocket for small articles like tying-up strings, composing rules, etc. The pocket should not, however, be a depository for types, leads, or brass rules that are usable; these articles should be distributed where they belong. [Page 9] [Page 10] Learning the Case There are thirty and more different styles of type cases shown in the catalogs of dealers in printers’ supplies, and some of these styles are made in different sizes. This variety may seem bewildering to the beginner who sees the case plans and realizes that a compositor must become familiar with the location of the hundreds of characters in the many boxes of the various cases. Many of the case plans shown, however, are not in common use, some of them never appearing in the average composing room. A number of them are for special material and their box arrangement is readily understood when one becomes familiar with composing room work. All unusual cases are (or should be) marked clearly, with labels on individual boxes if necessary, showing the name or shape of the character in each box. The cases used for ordinary hand composition are commonly laid out according to one of two plans: capital case and lower case. Some cases are a combination of both these plans. When the apprentice becomes thoroughly familiar with these two plans and their minor variations he will have little difficulty, if he is observing and careful, in understanding the arrangement of any other special cases which he may have to use occasionally. The plan of the common capital case is a simple alphabetical order of the letters, with the exception of J and U. The capital case is divided into two sections, each having seven boxes across and seven boxes in vertical line—forty-nine in each half of the case. Of the seven horizontal rows, only the lower four rows are used for the letters, the upper boxes being used for miscellaneous characters; or in some cases left vacant. This arrangement brings the letters AHPX in a vertical line, then BIQY, and so on, as shown in the diagram. 1 The capital case Fig. 2 (a ) The lower case Fig. 2 (b ) 1 Note. When the early printers made their case plans I and J, and also the V and U, were treated as variants of the same symbols and no special boxes were provided for them in the capital case. Later, when the J and U were used to express distinctive sounds they were added to the case in the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth places, which explains why they are out of the usual alphabetical order. The young compositor is advised to read further information about the history of these letters under their special heads in any of the unabridged general dictionaries, such as the Standard, Century, Webster’s, etc. In the lower-case plan there is an irregular arrangement of the alphabet and a difference in the size of the boxes. Some letters are used much more frequently than others, and the extra quantities of these types need larger boxes. These boxes are placed in the case near the compositor’s hand, while the types less frequently used are kept in boxes farther away. The pair of upper and lower cases, for many years in use as the standard cases for book composition and for large roman fonts, is being abandoned to a great extent. The increasing use of machines for book and periodical composition during the past few years is gradually eliminating the double cases which were necessary for large quantities of type when type was set solely by hand-work. Type cases in pairs are still generally used, however, and in many composing rooms they hold the chief working fonts of large as well as small sizes of type. A thorough familiarity with the box plans of the upper and lower cases should be the first acquirement of every apprentice. [Page 11] [Page 12] The California job case Fig. 3 The style of case now commonly used in America is that known as the California job case, which has boxes for alphabets of both capitals and small letters and for figures, points, spaces, quads, and a few other indispensable characters like &, $, dashes, etc. This style of case is popular because it provides in a convenient single tray enough boxes for a complete font of types needed to compose English sentences. The “lay of the case” may sometimes be learned in a few hours by an alert boy; sometimes the learning may be a matter of days or even weeks, according to the opportunity and the quickness of the learner. It is a good test of the young compositor’s mental quality to note the quickness and accuracy with which he learns this preliminary task. It may be safely predicted that the boy who works around a composing room for months doing odd jobs, even if he is not given special permission to set type, and fails to learn something of the case plan, through lack of interest or initiative on his part, will not prove an alert, intelligent compositor later on. Some foremen instruct the beginner to go to an old case with a composing stick and hunt for the letters until, by picking and fumbling, he manages to find those he needs for his first stickful. Another practice is to place types of a large size in the corners of the boxes of the principal letters as guides to the unfamiliar small types. Methods of this kind are slipshod and uncertain; there is sure to be an imperfect knowledge of the contents of the case, for a time at least, and consequent mixing of the types. The best method of learning the case is to draw a plan of it. This can be done by a study of the case itself before beginning to set type. Let the apprentice first copy the plan of the boxes without trying to memorize the letters in them. When the outline of the boxes is complete the letters can then be marked in place. Another way is to make a copy on a large scale from a print such as shown on page 11. When this is done the apprentice should ask the advice of his foreman or somebody familiar with the cases in his particular room, to be sure that his plan corresponds with the cases he will use. Not all cases are laid exactly alike, even if they appear to be the same at first glance. Many fonts have peculiar characters, or there may be in the case types not ordinarily belonging to the font, which are kept in some spare boxes, or for some reason changes may be desirable in the positions of the regular characters. In this, as in other matters, a safe rule for the apprentice will be: When in doubt, ask somebody who knows. It will always be wiser to proceed carefully at first and know that one is right than to work along in an uncertain, helter-skelter fashion. The drawing of plans of the different styles of cases in the room is not only a good way to learn the cases accurately but is also a good exercise in the use of pencil and type-measure; it is a simple problem in mechanical drawing which the young compositor should practice, in preparation for more advanced “layout” work which he may do later. [Page 13] [Page 14] Units for Measuring The unit of measurement for types, leads, rules, and other small items used in composing a page is the point, approximately 1⁄72 of an inch, shown by the thickness of this mark:| The most used type bodies are those of 6-point and others graduated by one point up to 12-point. The amount of type in a page is measured in ems of the size of type used. An em is a square of the body , and varies in size with each size of type. Thus, an 8-point em is 8 points deep and 8 points wide; a 12-point em is 12 points deep and 12 points wide. The common method of measuring the quantity of type on a page is by using the em as the unit, the number of ems in the line being multiplied by the number of lines on the page. The term em is applied in many ways to type; the em dash is one cast on a square body, the em fraction is a fraction cast on a square body, and so with type borders and other characters. Before the adoption of the point system type sizes were designated by a variety of names which were meaningless so far as indicating their sizes was concerned. In the point system the size of 12-point corresponds to the old pica. Pica has been a standard type in many countries for a long time, though it has not always been uniform in size. All type founders made pica types, but all picas were not the same size in this country until after the adoption of the point system in 1887. The old names pica and nonpareil (half pica, or 6-point) still survive as convenient terms to use in naming these sizes. For convenience and economy in the composing room the leads, slugs, rules, metal and wooden furniture, wood type, and other composing material are used in lengths graduated by 12-point or pica. When leads or rules are spoken of as being twenty picas, or twenty ems, it is understood that they are twenty 12-points long. Pica gages are scales marked off in units of 12- point (and half, or 6-point). A graduated composing stick is made to set to measures of 12- point and half. It will be remembered that the point size was given as approximately 1⁄72 of an inch. Actually a point is .013837 of an inch, but for convenience the simpler fraction of 1⁄72 is sufficiently accurate for composing-room purposes. This makes the 12-point or pica 1⁄6 of an inch. Shop custom measures the items of a page in points, and the page itself or its chief divisions by picas. Paper, sizes and other large dimensions are measured in inches. It is important for the apprentice to learn these units of measurements and their relation to each other in order to make quick calculations for line lengths, page sizes, margins, etc. [Page 15] Fig. 4 Spaces and Quads Trade custom gives the name spaces to the small type blanks and quads to the larger type blanks. These are further specified according to their thickness or fractional part of the em, or square, as 3-to-em, 4-to- em, 5-to-em (hereafter in this treatise, for convenience, termed respectively the 3-space, 4-space, 5-space). Very thin blanks are hair spaces or justifiers. The en quad (half the square) is sometimes called the thick space. 2 The large blanks are the em quad 2-em quad, and (for types of 12-point and smaller) 3-em quad. To the beginner the difference between some spaces and quads is not always clear because of the frequent identity of size in different type bodies. Thus, a 3-space of an 18-point font is 18×6 points, which is the same as a 3-em quad of 6-point. The difference between the two is in the position of the nicks (except where spaces and quads are cast without nicks). On the 6-point quad the nick is along the 3-em side, while on the 18-point space it is across the narrow 6-point edge. The identity in size is often a convenience, when quads or spaces of one size are exhausted, by allowing the use of pieces from another font. The apprentice should become familiar with these regular spaces of his case at the outset. He may learn to distinguish them by putting one of each thickness side by side frequently for comparison. By doing this with each size of type as he comes to use it he will soon learn to distinguish the spaces at a glance, to select quickly the space he wants, and to sort them properly in distributing. These four regular thickness of spaces meet most of the requirements of type composition. Besides their own individual widths they may be combined into any other widths for spacing and justifying lines. The following table, showing twenty-four different widths less than the em which can be made with the four original spaces, should be studied by the beginner who is in despair because he cannot find just the right thickness to fit his line. 2 Note. The 3-space is often miscalled the thick space; but as it is commonly known as the normal space (i.e. neither thick nor thin) it seems illogical to call it also a thick space. The en quad or any space thicker than the 3-space is obviously a thick space. [Page 16] [Page 17] A Simple Spacing Table Taking 60 as the common denominator of the five blanks, including the em quad, which would be 60⁄60, the en quad is 30⁄60, the 3-space is 20⁄60, the 4-space is 15⁄60, and the 5-space is 12⁄60. By combining the various spaces the following fractions of the em square may be obtained: 5-space = 12-60ths en and 4-space = 45-60ths 4-space = 15-60ths 3-4-5-spaces = 47-60ths 3-space = 20-60ths 4 5-spaces = 48-60ths 2 5-spaces = 24-60ths en and 3-spaces = 50-60ths 4-space and 5-space = 27-60ths 4-space and 3 5-spaces = 51-60ths en quad = 30-60ths 2 3-spaces and 5-space = 52-60ths 3-space and 5-space = 32-60ths en and 2 5-spaces = 54-60ths 3-space and 4-space = 35-60ths 2 3-spaces and 4-space = 55-60ths 3 5-spaces = 36-60ths 3-space and 3 5-spaces = 56-60ths 4-space and 2 5-spaces = 39-60ths en, 4- and 5-spaces = 57-60ths 2 3-spaces = 40-60ths 3-space, 4-space and 2 en and 5-space = 42-60ths 5-spaces = 59-60ths 3-space and 2 5-spaces = 44-60ths em quad = 60-60ths With a supply of the regular spaces at hand it will be seen that for average work there is ample opportunity for careful spacing and proper justification. The trouble often comes, however, because of an insufficient supply of the thinner spaces. Unfortunately in many places these are not supplied in right quantities and the usual boxes for holding them are inadequate for a proper supply. Improper distribution of the thin spaces is also responsible for the lack of a proper supply, as well as for great loss of time in sorting and hunting during composition. The point system of widths has been applied to spaces, the thickness being graduated by points and half-points, instead of the fractional division of the em. In a font of 10-point, for instance, the four ordinary spaces 5-space, 4-space, 3-space, and en quad, are respectively 2, 2 1⁄2, 3 1⁄3, and 5 points thick. In the point system there are five spaces within these limits, namely: 2, 2 1⁄2, 3, 4, and 5 points thick. The extra space and two intermediate widths between the 4-space and the en quad give many advantages in spacing for good composition; though as yet the use of these point-width spaces is not general in hand composition. The lack of proper boxes to keep them in the ordinary type cases is a serious drawback to their economical use. The following table shows the widths of point spaces in six common sizes of type: [Page 18] POINT SYSTEM OF SPACE WIDTHS 6-to- em 5-to- em 4-to- em 3-to- em Patent space en quad em quad 6-point 8-point 10-point 12-point 14-point 18-point 1 1 1 1⁄2 2 2 2 — 1 1⁄2 2 2 1⁄2 3 3 1 1⁄2 2 2 1⁄2 3 4 4 2 2 1⁄2 3 4 5 6 2 1⁄2 3 4 5 6 — 3 4 5 6 7 9 6 8 10 12 14 16 When type composition is to be used regularly for making moulds for electrotypes; high spaces, quads, leads, and slugs are employed instead of the ordinary low spaces and quads. These reach nearly as high as the shoulder of the type and, unlike low spaces, do not leave small holes and crevices between the words and lines into which the moulding wax is forced when moulding. Although a great deal of miscellaneous job work is moulded for electrotyping with low spaces and other blanks, the electrotyper finds it difficult to obtain the best results with forms made up in this manner. The high blank spaces make a better moulding form and are used in composing rooms where the major part of the work is electrotyped. Large hollow quads, known as quotation quads (quotation furniture, in the larger sizes), are used in place of solid quads where there are many large blanks in the form. These have the advantage of lightness in comparison with regular quads. They should be set in the form with the hollow space down, so as not to catch dirt and small particles that will be likely to come out later on the ink rollers when the form is on the press. There are occasionally places where it will be an advantage to use them hollow-side up for ease in picking them out when changing the form; but the form should never be sent to press or to the electrotype foundry with the hollow spaces up. In a font of typewriter type all characters are cast on bodies of the same width. Only one kind of space is used (or need be used) for spacing the lines. This space is the same width as the letters, so that each line contains exactly the same number of pieces. The usual size for this kind of type is 12-point and the width of the letters and the space is a little more than the en. The apprentice should notice that the 12-point typewriter space and the 12-point en quad are not the same. Script types usually need spaces and quads that are beveled on two sides near the top. The bevels are to allow for the overhanging kern of the letters. The spaces and quads are cast to fit the particular design of the face. The general practice of slug-casting machine composition is to justify the lines by increasing the spaces, which explains the customary wide-spaced appearance of machine-set matter. As the same space-bands are used for all sizes on the machine, a 6-point size is spaced relatively much wider than a 10-point face. Note. The system of spaces here considered is that of regular foundry type fonts. Linotypes and Monotypes have systems of spacing which differ considerably from this. In Monotype composition a special unit system is used. There are 18 units in a quad, which, unlike the em quad of foundry type, in the smaller sizes is not usually an exact square. The space is 6 units, approximating the foundry 3-to-em space; the 5-unit space equaling the 4-to-em space; and the 4-unit usually a little less than the 5-to-em space. These are cast from matrices and represent fixed widths. But in the process of composition the expanding or justifying space is used to fill out the line. When the keyboard operator sees that another word or syllable can not go into the line the keys indicating the width of the spaces to fill the line are struck, the result being that all spaces are spread equally to fill the line. The actual spaces cast may be any number of units in width. On the Linotype there are three fixed spaces: the em quad, the en quad (or figure space), and the thin space, equal to a fourth of the em. The regular space is made by space-bands which can be used to make any size between a 3-to-em and double this thickness. If anything smaller than the thin space is needed, it must be put in by hand. Table of Contents [Page 19] [Page 20] Hair Spaces and Justifiers The term justifying refers to the tightening of a line to make it correspond with other lines or parts of the page, so that the whole form may be locked together compactly, with no parts loose and none too tight. The term spacing refers to the blanks between the words in the lines. The term leading refers to the distance between the lines in a paragraph or page of plain matter. A line of type may be well spaced but improperly justified. On the other hand, it may be badly spaced but nicely justified. There are many places where spaces thinner than the 5-space are needed, especially for letter- spacing and for careful word-spacing, as well as for tabular pages and other work requiring accurate justification. For such purposes hair spaces, copper-thins, and brass-thins are provided. The thickness of hair spaces varies according to the size of the type; the name is given generally to any cast space thinner than the 5-to-em. Copper spaces are 1⁄2-point in thickness and brass spaces are 1-point thick, the difference in the metal used being for easy distinction of the thicknesses. Copper and brass spaces, because of greater durability, are superior to cast metal hair spaces for hand composition. When metal thin spaces are not at hand it may be necessary to resort to pieces of paper or thin card. Spaces of this kind should be used only in exceptional cases and not at all as a common practice. There should be never more than a few pieces of paper used in justifying a line. A safe rule for the apprentice, when he thinks he cannot make his line come right without some such expedient, is to ask an experienced compositor, who will usually show him how to justify without the paper. [Page 21] Leads and Slugs Lines of type are separated by leads and slugs. These are strips of metal lower than type-high and are furnished by dealers in labor-saving fonts and also in lengths of two feet. Leads are made 1-point, 1 1⁄2-point, 2-point, and 3-point thick. The 1-point size is furnished in 16-inch lengths. The 2-point is the thickness mostly used. Slugs are made usually 6-point, 12-point, 18- point, and 24-point thick, but other sizes are also made. Leads and slugs are made in two heights; one slightly less than low spaces and quads, for usual composition when the type is to be used for printing, and the other high enough to reach the shoulder of the type, for use with high spaces and quads in electrotype moulding. Leads and slugs are also made of brass, in sizes, lengths, and heights similar to the soft metal varieties. While the cost of brass material is much greater than ordinary metal strips, in some cases its greater durability makes it more economical. This is true of the 1-point and 11⁄2-point thicknesses used in standard lengths, as in newspaper and periodical pages. For occasional use in job work the soft metal leads are usually satisfactory. Strips of wood, called reglet, are sometimes used as substitutes for leads and slugs in large sizes. These are made in lengths of one yard and in sizes of 6-point (nonpareil), 12-point (pica), and 18-point. Larger sizes of the same material are known as wooden furniture. All the material mentioned under this head is commonly used in lengths graduated by the pica (12-point) and is for the most part in labor-saving fonts or assortments. Each kind should be kept, when not in use, in racks or cases with compartments for the different lengths. [Page 22] Setting the Composing Stick The width of a type page is called its measure. Before commencing to set type the stick must be set to the measure required; that is, for the length of the type line. If the stick is of the modern graduated pattern which sets to standard measures by changing the movable side-piece to a slot or notch where it is fixed, the setting is a simpler matter. These sticks will no doubt be in more common use later than they are now because of their many advantages; but as there are many of the old style thumbscrew sticks (especially the kind known as the Yankee job stick) in use in composing rooms throughout the country, it is necessary to know how to adjust these correctly. The old style sticks not only require care in setting but watchfulness afterward to see that they do not change while being used for a job. The manner of setting a stick may depend upon the kind of work to be done. For job work of a few lines only, where the lines are to be locked by themselves in a chase, the stick may be set by a bunch of leads of the required length. These are placed in the stick and the movable knee set up to them loosely, so that the leads do not bind at the ends. If the job is to be enclosed in a border or rule panel the stick should be adjusted accurately to ems of 12-point or 6-point. The Composing Stick Fig. 5 For ordinary measures a line of perfect 12-point quads will be a good gage. For very short measures, as in tabular column heads, 6-point quads should be used. A gage that will be more uniformly accurate is a line of 12-point letters (for short measures) or 24-point letters (for longer measures) from a font of foundry-cast type. These should be set in the stick with the nicks sideways, not in front as for composition. The body-size of cast type is the most accurate of any point-size material, and as 12-point and 24-point fonts are at hand in every composing room they furnish a convenient and reliable standard at all times. A row of twenty sideways ems Usually the knee should be set lightly against the gage when the thumbscrew is tightened. A good plan is to put a slip of paper at one end of the line of quads or letters (See A, Fig. 5), and to push up the knee firmly. A line of many separate types will not fit together as solidly as a line of a few quads; to allow for a little compression in the line when it is locked up later the slight fullness is given in setting the stick. In setting measures for tabular columns and for very short lines the slip of paper is not necessary. The Composing Stick Fig. 6 It is important that the outer end of the knee should be kept at a right angle to make the stick square, in order that the first and last lines of the stickful should be of exactly the same length. If there is any doubt about this, test the front of the stick by moving the gage line forward when the measure is adjusted. If the gage line is looser here than at the back, the outer end of the knee may be closed in by inserting a piece of card between the knee and the back plate, as is shown at A in Fig. 6. When the measure is set, make the thumbscrew as tight as possible with the fingers. Do not use a wrench, as this is liable to give unnecessary force and break the small clamp. Make it a practice to try the thumbscrew occasionally while using the stick to prevent the knee from becoming loose, as it may in case the lines are justified tightly. [Page 23] [Page 24]