Project Gutenberg's Types of News Writing, by Willard Grosvenor Bleyer This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: Types of News Writing Author: Willard Grosvenor Bleyer Release Date: May 25, 2019 [EBook #59606] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPE OF NEWS WRITING *** Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) TYPES OF NEWS WRITING Cover The cover image has been created by the transcriber and placed in the public domain. Title page TYPES OF NEWS WRITING BY WILLARD GROSVENOR BLEYER, Ph.D. Author of “Newspaper Writing and Editing” and Professor of Journalism in the University of Wisconsin Colophon BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY The Riverside Press Cambridge COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY WILLARD GROSVENOR BLEYER ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The Riverside Press CAMBRIDGE · MASSACHUSETTS U . S . A PREFACE This book has been prepared with the purpose of furnishing students of journalism and young reporters with a large collection of typical news stories. For college classes it may be used as a textbook. For newspaper workers it is offered as a handbook to which they may turn, in a particular case, to find out what news to get, where to get it, and how to present it effectively. Every young writer on a newspaper is called upon to do kinds of reporting in which he lacks experience. If, with the aid of an index, he can turn readily to several instances where more experienced writers have solved problems like his own, he will undertake his new task with a clearer idea of what to do and how to do it. For systematic instruction in news writing it is desirable that students have in convenient form representative stories for study and analysis. Newspapers, it might be thought, would furnish this material, but experience has shown that it is often difficult to find, in current issues of newspapers, examples of the particular kind of story under consideration, and it is likewise difficult to supply every student in a large class with a copy of the issue that happens to contain the desired example. The selection of specimens for this book has been determined largely by two considerations: first, that the news which the story contains should be typical, rather than extraordinary or “freakish”; and second, that the story should present the news effectively. It has been assumed that the student must first learn to handle average news well in order to grapple successfully with extraordinary happenings. A considerable part of the book deals with more or less routine news, because it is with this type that a large portion of the reporter’s work is concerned. Since newspapers are read rapidly, it has been taken for granted that a story is most effective when its structure and style enable the reader to get the news with the least effort and the greatest interest. Many pieces of news can best be treated in a simple, concise style, with the essential facts well massed in a summary lead. Such straightforward presentation does not mean that the style must be bald and unoriginal. The examples illustrative of this purely informative type of news story are generally marked by a simplicity and directness of expression that are characteristic of good journalistic style. Informative news stories in which the so-called “human interest” element has been developed have also been included in considerable number, not only because they are perennially popular, but because some news may be presented very effectively by bringing out its human interest phases. As a type distinct from these stories with news of some value are those entertaining and appealing stories, containing little or no real news, that are generally known as “feature” or “human interest” stories. Both of these types illustrate the application to news writing of recognized methods of fiction. The use of these methods is entirely commendable. The danger for the reporter lies in failure to discriminate between fiction and its methods. To use the devices of fiction in order to portray faithfully actual events is one thing; to substitute fictitious details in order to heighten the effect is quite another. No stories have been included in this book that are unquestionably fictitious. Some that may have imaginary details have been given to furnish material for discussion. The examples presented here are not put forward as models for the student to imitate in every respect. Few news stories are perfect in structure and style. The conditions under which they are written and edited make careful revision almost impossible. For the purpose of analysis, work that is not so well done as it might have been is valuable as showing the student what to avoid in his own writing. The stories have been grouped in chapters partly on the basis of subject matter and partly on that of the methods used. This arrangement has been adopted not as a complete classification of news, but rather as a convenient grouping for purposes of study. In each chapter has been included a brief discussion of the chief points to be considered in analyzing and in writing the type of story in that division. None of the points has been treated at length owing to lack of space and to the fact that most of them have been taken up in detail by the author in another textbook, “Newspaper Writing and Editing.” Attention has been called in each chapter to the underlying purpose that should determine the selection and the presentation of the kind of news included in that group. This has been done in the belief that the reporter should consider carefully the probable effect on the reader of every story that he writes. Since “the food of opinion is the news of the day,” the kind of food that he serves and the manner in which he serves it is a matter of consequence, not only to him and his newspaper but to society as a whole. Not until a reporter realizes the influence that his news stories may have on the ideas and ideals of thousands of readers, does he appreciate fully the significance of his work. The possibilities of what has been termed “constructive journalism” have been dwelt upon at some length because it is evident that well-edited papers are undertaking more and more to present the news so that it will have a wholesome effect on their readers. The selections in this book have been taken from daily newspapers in all parts of the country and may be said to illustrate current practice. The name of the paper has been attached to each example, not only in acknowledgment of iv v the credit due, but in an effort to lead the student to consider the story from the point of view of the policy of the paper and of the character of the readers to whom it appeals. The student should compare all of the stories taken from each paper and should, if possible, examine the current issues. Although it has not seemed desirable to print the examples in so small type as that commonly used in newspapers, the column width has been retained in order to reproduce, as far as possible, the effect of the original form. Headlines have not been given because they are not an integral part of the story. In a few instances stories have been condensed when it was possible to do so without destroying the effect. For obvious reasons names and addresses have frequently been changed, and errors that escaped notice have been corrected in a number of the stories. The author is deeply indebted to Alice Haskell Bleyer for invaluable suggestions and criticism in connection with every detail of this book. University of Wisconsin, Madison, January 20, 1916. vi CONTENTS I. News Writing 1 II. The Study of News Stories 6 An Outline for the Analysis of News Stories 12 III. Fires and Accidents 15 IV. Police News and Crime 46 V. Criminal and Civil Courts 76 VI. Investigations, Legislation, and Meetings 107 VII. Speeches, Interviews, and Reports 126 VIII. Exhibitions, Entertainments, and Special Occasions 141 IX. Illness and Death 168 X. Politics and Elections 179 XI. Labor Troubles and Strikes 186 XII. Weather 192 XIII. Sports 200 XIV. Society 221 XV. Miscellaneous Local News 232 Index 261 vii TYPES OF NEWS WRITING CHAPTER I NEWS WRITING Contents of newspapers. The average daily newspaper includes a larger amount and variety of reading matter than most readers realize. In one issue of a large daily paper, which contains from 60,000 to 80,000 words exclusive of advertising, are usually to be found examples of practically every type of literary composition. The contents range from news of accidents and crime to humorous and serious verse, from market reports to a short story or a chapter of a novel, from dramatic and musical criticism to cooking recipes and cosmetic formulas, from argumentative editorials to reports of boxing matches and baseball games. Vivid description, spirited narrative, critical appreciation, logical argument, lucid explanation, moving pathos, vigorous appeals, wit and humor—all are often exemplified in a single issue of a well-edited newspaper. Scarcely any other form of publication has regularly so great a variety of writing as the daily newspaper. Thus, although a newspaper is ordinarily thought of solely as a medium for the publication of current news and editorials, the average daily paper supplies its readers with much entertaining reading matter as well as considerable advice and useful information. Classification of contents. Diversified as are the contents of a typical daily paper, they may be grouped in seven classes: (1) news stories; (2) special feature articles; (3) editorials; (4) dramatic, musical, and literary criticism; (5) practical advice and useful information; (6) humorous matter; (7) fiction. Of these seven classes, the first four—news stories, special feature articles, editorials, and dramatic, musical, and literary criticism—are generally considered to be the distinctly journalistic types of writing. News stories present (1) timely events of interest and significance to readers, and (2) timely incidents of little or no news value that are made entertaining by the manner in which they are presented. The first is the common type of news story; the second is usually called the “human interest” or “feature” story. Although it is sometimes said that anything that has ever happened is news if it has not been generally known, it is evident that events that have occurred in the past are not worth publishing as news unless they have a timely interest and significance. A distinction is generally made between “spot news,” which is news of events when they occur, and “detail” or “situation” material that is presented some time later in the form of special correspondence or of special feature articles. Special feature articles are detailed presentations of (1) matters of recent news that are of sufficient interest to warrant elaboration, (2) timely topics not directly connected with the news of the day, (3) subjects of interest that are neither timely nor connected with current events. They are informative in character and are generally of some length. They are usually published in magazine sections of Saturday or Sunday editions, but in some papers they appear daily. Editorials have as their purpose the interpretation of news and of current issues and the discussion of matters of general interest, particularly with a view to convincing readers of the truth or the falsity of some proposition and of persuading them to act in accordance with the convictions thus created. In this way they differ from both news stories and special feature articles. Dramatic, musical, and literary criticism consists of reviewing and passing judgment on current dramatic performances, concerts, and books. To the extent that some reviews of plays and concerts merely give informative news concerning the event, they are like news stories, but in so far as they are critical, they are more like editorials. Book reviews, likewise, may simply give information regarding the contents of a book, or they may undertake to evaluate it by pointing out its merits and defects. Practical advice and useful information in special fields, humorous matter, and fiction, as given in the daily newspaper, do not differ materially from similar matter published in other forms and cannot be considered distinctly journalistic types of writing. How news is gathered. Since the day’s news is the essential part of the daily newspaper, the gathering, writing, and editing of news is naturally the chief concern of journalism. From the point of view of newspaper organization for handling news, it is divided into two general classes: (1) local news, and (2) telegraph news. Local news, which is that of the city where the paper is published as well as of its immediate vicinity, is gathered (1) by reporters working under the direction of the city editor of the paper, and (2) by reporters working under the direction of the head of a local news association or bureau, the news service of which the paper uses to supplement its own news gathering. Telegraph news includes all news not local, which comes to the paper by telegraph, long-distance telephone, cable, or mail, whether sent by its own correspondents or by a news association such as the Associated Press or the United Press. The reporters and correspondents of the press associations work under practically the same conditions as the newspaper’s 1 2 3 own correspondents, but they are responsible to the division head of the press association, whereas the newspaper’s correspondents are under the direction of the telegraph editor or of the state editor of the paper. The work of news gathering is not essentially different, whether done by a reporter or by a correspondent in the employ of a newspaper or of a news-gathering association. How news is written. After the reporter has obtained the news, he returns to the office and writes his story as rapidly as possible, in accordance with any instructions that the city editor may give him. If it is inexpedient for him to return to the office, he writes his story quickly at some convenient place and sends it to the office by messenger or by telephone. Under some circumstances, particularly when lack of time prevents his writing the story and sending it in, he telephones the facts to a rewrite man in the office, who writes the story from the data thus secured. The reporter for a local news association prepares his stories, as directed by the news editor of the association, under practically the same conditions as the newspaper reporter. The correspondent, after writing his story, mails it, files it at the telegraph office, or telephones it to the newspaper office. He, too, may telephone the bare facts to have them written in news-story form by a rewrite man in the newspaper office. The correspondent of a general news-gathering agency handles his news in the same way except that he sends it by mail, telegraph, or telephone to the district office of the association or agency that he represents. At this district office it is edited and sent out to those papers in various parts of the country that use the association’s service. As news stories, whether local or telegraph, are edited before they are printed, practically all stories as they appear in the newspaper are the work not only of the reporter or correspondent who gathered the news, but of one or more editors and copy-readers. Well-written stories of reporters and correspondents usually undergo little change when edited. A poorly written story, on the other hand, may be made over into a very effective one by a rewrite man, an editor, or a copy-reader. Conditions affecting news writing. The structure and the style of news stories are determined (1) by the conditions under which they are written, (2) by the character of the readers, (3) by the conditions under which newspapers are read, (4) by the typographical form of newspapers, and (5) by the popular taste. Newspaper writing must be done rapidly under considerable pressure and generally without opportunity for careful revision. Although this haste does not excuse incorrect and slovenly English, it does result in looser, less finished writing than might be produced under more favorable circumstances. In rapid writing, and particularly in handling similar material from day to day, the writer, unless he is on his guard, is likely to fall into the habit of using stock phrases, trite and colorless. The large amount of available news that must be crowded daily into limited space makes it essential to present the news in compact form and concise style. “Boil it down” and “Cut it to the bone” are constant admonitions in every newspaper office. Conciseness is a necessary quality of newspaper style. The average newspaper, in order to succeed, must appeal to all classes of readers in the community. It must present its contents in a way that will attract and interest the so-called masses as well as the business and the professional classes. The style of writing is generally adapted to readers of limited education no less than to the well educated. Comparative simplicity of expression, accordingly, is the rule in newspaper writing. Newspapers are read rapidly by practically all classes of readers. They must, therefore, be written in a style that makes rapid reading easy. Important details are placed at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences, where they will catch the eye at once. The emphasis thus given by the initial position is one of the distinctive characteristics of newspaper writing. To the most important details made prominent in this way are added the less significant but necessary particulars, one by one, in natural order. This arrangement results in a loose rather than a periodic sentence structure and eliminates the possibility of a climactic effect in the paragraphs or in the whole story. The shortness of the line in the narrow column affects newspaper style because it necessitates a proportionate shortening of the paragraph. Paragraphs that appear long seem heavy and uninviting, especially to the rapid reader. Since but six words on an average can be crowded into a line in newspapers, as compared to ten or twelve in a line in most books, newspaper paragraphs can be only half as long as those in ordinary prose without loss of effectiveness. The popular demand for novelty and variety prevents any form of newspaper writing from becoming fixed, and results from time to time in the development of new forms and new styles of news writing. To make some news stories entertaining rather than purely informative, a number of newspapers abandon the conventional summary beginning, or lead, and use unconventional ones like the beginnings of short stories. They likewise give prominence to trivial happenings worked up into so-called “human interest” or “feature” stories, because in that form they make entertaining reading. Characteristics of news writing. As a result of these various conditions and influences news writing has come to have certain well marked characteristics. It must be (1) concise, (2) clear, (3) comparatively simple, (4) easily read, and (5) attractive to all classes. 4 5 Conciseness requires that needless words be omitted, that only such details be given as are necessary for effective presentation of the subject, and that the length of the story be proportionate to the importance of the material. In order to be concise, however, news writing does not have to be bald and unattractive. Clearness is secured in journalistic style by comparative simplicity of diction, of sentence construction, and of paragraph structure. Learned diction, elaborate figures of speech, and involved sentences have no place in news writing intended to appeal to all classes of readers. To be attractive to the average rapid reader newspaper style must be easy to read. It is made easy, as has been pointed out, by placing the important points in conspicuous positions at the beginnings of sentences and paragraphs. To satisfy the popular taste newspaper writing must also be interesting in form and in style. It sometimes adopts the more or less striking devices of fiction in order to add to its effectiveness. Furthermore, attractiveness is secured by such typographical means as the use of a frame, or “box,” and bold-face type, for facts of especial importance. CHAPTER II THE STUDY OF NEWS STORIES Value of study. Every good news story may be regarded as a solution of a difficult problem in gathering, selecting, and weaving together a number of details. The steps in the solution may be as carefully followed as the steps in solving a problem in algebra or in performing an experiment in physics. As in the analysis of such problems and experiments, so in the analysis of news stories, the ultimate purpose is to find out how to solve similar problems as they arise in actual experience. However interesting the theories and principles of the art of news writing may be for themselves, it is the practical application of them in the writer’s own work that gives them their value for the student of journalism. Aims in studying news stories. The purpose in analyzing typical examples of news writing should be to discover in detail (1) how to obtain news, (2) how to determine its value, and (3) how to present it most effectively. Most stories reveal the means by which their contents were obtained and the importance which the writer or editor attached to each of the details. Sources of information and standards for evaluating material are thus shown by a careful examination of examples. A study of well-written news stories makes clear the application of the principles of prose composition to the writing of news. A comparison of several news stories of the same type brings out the variety of ways in which similar material may be handled. The writer must know the varied possibilities of treating material, because, in working on similar matter from day to day, he is in great danger of dropping into conventional forms and stereotyped expressions. Methods of analysis. In the study of a news story the following points should be considered: (1) the value of the news; (2) the sources of the news; (3) the methods by which it was obtained; (4) the purpose of the story; (5) the type of the story; (6) the structure; (7) the literary style; and (8) the typographical style. News and news values. News, as commonly defined, is anything timely that interests a number of readers, and the best news is that which has the greatest interest for the greatest number. Constructive journalism is not satisfied to present merely what readers are naturally interested in; it aims to give news that is significant to them from the point of view of their personal affairs as well as from that of the welfare of society. It likewise undertakes to create interest in significant news that of itself may not interest a considerable number of readers. Each story, therefore, should be examined in order to determine why the news in it was considered of interest and significance to the readers of the paper in which it was published, as well as how great the interest and the significance were believed to be as indicated by the space given to the story. News values are based largely on the reader’s interest in (1) timely matters, (2) extraordinary events and circumstances, (3) struggles for supremacy in politics, business, sports, etc., (4) matters involving the property, life, and welfare of fellow men, (5) children, (6) animals, (7) hobbies and amusements. The degree of the reader’s interest in these matters of news is proportionate to (1) his familiarity with the persons, the places, and the things involved, (2) the importance and the prominence of these persons, places, and things, (3) the closeness of their relation to the reader’s personal affairs. The distinction between local news and general news grows out of the greater degree of interest on the part of the reader in persons and places that he knows and in matters that are closely related to his business and his home. News of significance concerning the community in which he lives is of prime importance to every reader. Interest in news may generally be said to vary inversely in proportion to the distance between the place where the news originates and the place where the paper is published. Local interest is given to general news by bringing out those phases, or “local ends,” of telegraph news that are of significance in the community in which the paper circulates. Every story indicates the evaluation of the news that it presents as made by the reporter or correspondent, and by the editor or the copy-reader. By determining the basis of this evaluation, the student acquires a criterion by which to judge the news value of whatever he is called upon to report. Sources of news. From the details of a news story it is almost always possible to infer the sources from which the news was obtained. Public and private records, reports, officials, eye-witnesses, for example, are often cited as authorities for the facts in the story. These sources should be noted carefully, so that they may be drawn upon by the student in his own reporting. In fact, a list of sources compiled from news stories of various kinds, such as those of crime, accidents, fires, etc., will be found helpful to the beginner. Methods of news gathering. How the details of the news were obtained may also be ascertained from an examination of the story. In the report of an interview, for example, the reporter’s questions may be inferred from the person’s replies. Not infrequently the story shows indirectly the circumstances under which the reporter secured the material. The student will do well to note every such hint and suggestion. 6 7 8 Purpose. Every news story should present the details of the news as accurately as possible and as completely as the significance of the news warrants. The embellishment of news stories with fictitious details to make them more interesting or more entertaining, as well as the distortion and suppression of significant facts of the news in order to accomplish some end, are alike opposed to the fundamental purpose of the newspaper. Besides reporting the news with fairness and accuracy, however, the writer, consciously or unconsciously, may accomplish other ends by the manner in which he presents his material. By giving prominence to certain details and aspects of a piece of news, he may produce one effect upon the reader’s mind; by emphasizing others in the same piece of news, he may produce an entirely different impression. Thus news of accidents, crime, courts, and similar matters can be presented so as to exert either a wholesome or an unwholesome influence on readers; that is, it may be constructive or destructive in its effect. Stories of crime, for example, may be written in a manner that tends to make the wrongdoer more or less of a hero, and hence may encourage others to imitate his career; or they may be written in a way that tends to deter readers from committing similar crimes. Whether wrongdoing is made attractive or unattractive in news stories depends not so much upon giving the facts fully and accurately as upon the reporter’s attitude toward his material. Some newspapers simply record the news without emphasizing either its constructive or its destructive phases. Newspapers of this type have been likened to mirrors that reflect impartially whatever comes within their range. This policy is expressed in the dictum of a well-known editor when he declared, “Whatever the Divine Providence permitted to occur, I was not too proud to report.” Purely informative news stories and entertaining feature stories in these papers are written without particular regard for their influence on readers. Other newspapers, not satisfied with reporting the day’s events in an accurate but colorless manner, without any particular consideration for its effect upon their readers, deliberately undertake to give news in such a way that it tends to be helpful and constructive in its influence. They publish not merely the usual details regarding fires and accidents; they emphasize the causes, the responsibility, and the frequency of such occurrences, in order to impress upon readers the importance of taking preventive measures against the recurrence of such disasters. They also recognize the fact that some legitimate news, even when given in what is ordinarily considered an unobjectionable manner, tends to have a bad effect on readers in that it suggests to them ideas and ideals inimical to the best interests of society as a whole. So-called “waves” of crime and suicide they realize are often the result of suggestions given to morally unstable readers by newspaper stories of crimes and suicides. By constructive treatment of such news, they attempt to reduce to a minimum these undesirable suggestions and to substitute for them suggestions that tend to prevent similar criminal and anti-social acts. Another class of newspapers, apparently disregarding the unwholesome effect upon their readers, give prominence to sensational, ghastly, and scandalous phases of the news because they know that such details appeal to the morbid interest of many readers. The not uncommon explanation made by these newspapers for such treatment of news is that they are giving the public what it wants. Critics of these papers deny the validity of this excuse and point out that it would apply equally to the selling of habit-forming drugs and adulterated food, acts now forbidden by law. Since the underlying purpose of the writer plays an important part in the selection and the arrangement of material for news stories, as well as in the effect that stories produce upon readers, it deserves careful consideration in the analysis of news stories. Type of story. There are two general types of news stories: (1) the informative news story, the chief aim of which is to give the facts of the news; and (2) the feature or human interest story, the chief aim of which is to take material of little or no news value and make it interesting. The fundamental difference between these two kinds of stories is the news value of the contents. The presence or absence of so-called “human interest” is not the basis of this classification, for informative news stories may be developed by bringing out the human interest element in the news. The informative news story may be one of two kinds: (1) the story the chief purpose of which is to record the facts of the news without particular regard to its effect upon the readers; and (2) the story that presents the facts of the news in such a way as to produce a wholesome effect. The purely informative news story usually presents the facts of the news so that they can be grasped readily in rapid reading. Its length is determined by the value of its news as measured by the ordinary standards of news values. It may be made interesting by bringing out the human interest element and by any literary device that is adapted to the subject. Usually it has a summary lead. The informative story of the constructive type aims to interest the reader in the significance of the facts of the news, and the length of the story, accordingly, is determined by the importance of the news from this point of view. By bringing out the human interest element in the constructive type of story, the writer is able to make the emotional appeal to the readers that is particularly effective in accomplishing the purposes of this kind of story. Stories of this type may or may not have a summary lead. In the entertaining feature story that contains little or no news, the interest lies entirely in the manner in which the facts are told. The literary ability of the writer is here tested to the utmost, for a story is read only so far as it interests. The length of these stories, therefore, is determined by the writer’s success in sustaining the reader’s interest. 9 10 News stories in method are (1) narrative, (2) descriptive, (3) expository, or (4) any combination of these three forms of discourse. These forms are often to be found combined in a single story. The reporter, for example, may in one story narrate a series of incidents, describe the persons and places involved, and explain causes, motives, and results. In the purely informative news story that is narrative in form there is little suspense, because the essential facts are usually summarized in the beginning, or lead. In the narrative feature story, however, the interest is frequently sustained by the same devices that are used in fiction. Description in news stories may be either suggestive or detailed. In most stories lack of space makes it impossible to do more than sketch briefly the appearance of persons and objects by suggestive touches. In long stories, however, when circumstances warrant it, descriptions may be given in considerable detail. The purpose in both kinds of description should be to convey to the reader impressions of sights, sounds, etc., as vivid as those the reporter himself experienced. News stories are expository, as a whole or in part, whenever situations must be made clear by explaining motives, causes, results, and other phases of the news, or by summarizing the whole or a part of speeches, reports, etc. Such exposition should always be as simple and lucid as possible. Structure of the story. The structure of the news story is concerned with (1) the beginning, or lead, and (2) the body of the story. The informative story usually begins with a summary lead that answers the reader’s questions Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? Thus the summary lead includes the following details: (1) the persons, (2) the event, (3) the place, (4) the time, (5) the cause, (6) the significant circumstances. Any one of these elements of the news may be “featured” in the place of prominence at the beginning of the story, although the time and the place are seldom played up in this way. The story of entertainment or appeal, on the other hand, usually avoids the summary lead by beginning in one of the ways common to fictitious narratives. In its beginning, its effort to sustain suspense, and its semblance of plot the human interest or feature story closely resembles the short story. In the body of the story the details follow a logical order. The arrangement in narrative stories is usually chronological. Only such of the details summarized in the lead are repeated in the body of the story as are needed for clearness. Although it is well to round out stories in the last paragraph, the ending does not receive so much attention as in other prose, because the exigencies of “make-up” often necessitate the cutting off of the last paragraph or two. Literary style. The style of a news story is concerned with such elements as (1) paragraphs, (2) sentences, (3) words; and with such qualities as (1) clearness, (2) force, (3) animation, (4) humor, (5) pathos, (6) taste. Analysis of paragraphs and sentences should include: (1) the length of the paragraph and of the sentence; (2) the unity of thought in the sentence, and the unity of topic in the paragraph; (3) the coherence, or connection between the parts; and (4) the emphasis given to the important ideas by their position in sentence and paragraph. Because of the narrowness of the columns the newspaper paragraph must be comparatively short to avoid appearing heavy and uninviting. The typical newspaper paragraph contains from 35 to 75 words, whereas the average paragraph in ordinary prose is from 150 to 250 words in length. In sentence length, and in paragraph and sentence unity and coherence, the style of the news story does not differ from that of other prose. Involved constructions, long periodic sentences, and similar rhetorical devices, however, have no place in journalistic writing, because they tend to prevent rapid reading. The emphasis given to an important point by placing it at the beginning of a sentence or a paragraph, is a distinctive characteristic of newspaper style, growing out of the fact that in rapid reading the eye catches important points quickly if they occupy these initial positions. Specific words in original combinations are always preferable to colorless, general terms and trite phrases. Technical, scientific, and learned words should be avoided unless fully explained. Slang and colloquial expressions may be used when the tone of the story justifies them. Clearness, which is essential to rapid reading, depends upon the arrangement, the connection, and the expression of ideas, and the student will do well to analyze these essential factors in well-written stories. How brisk movement and steady progress can be secured is also worthy of notice. Humor and pathos are not infrequent in news stories, particularly in those of the feature and human interest type. The student should observe how humor may be effective without ridicule, buffoonery, or vulgarity, and how offensive facts may be presented in news stories without violating the canons of good taste. Typographical style. Peculiarities in such details of typographical style as abbreviation, capitalization, hyphenation, and the use of numerical figures should be noted in each story and associated with the newspaper from which the story was taken, for each paper has a typographical style of its own. One style is as good as another, but it is essential that consistency be maintained. The printing of significant facts in a box at the beginning or in the body of a story, often in bold-face type, the method 11 12 of arranging lists of dead and injured, the forms for market reports, scores in sports, and similar details should be carefully noted. AN OUTLINE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF NEWS STORIES NEWS VALUES 1. In what paper was the story published? 2. What are the policy and the character of the paper? 3. How widely does the paper circulate outside of the place in which it is published? 4. Does the paper appeal to a particular class of readers? 5. Is the piece of news presented from the point of view of this class? 6. What, for the average reader, is the source of interest in the news contained in the story? 7. How much would the news interest the average reader? Why? 8. Do you think that the news was worth more or less space than was given to it? Why? 9. What more significant phases might have been played up or developed? SOURCES OF NEWS 1. How did the news originate? 2. Where was the first record of it probably made? By whom? 3. What records and what persons may have been consulted in securing the news? 4. What reference books or material may have been used in getting or in verifying the details of the story? 5. What other possible sources might have been consulted? METHODS OF NEWS GATHERING 1. What evidence does the story give of the methods by which the news was obtained? 2. Is there any evidence that the reporter or correspondent failed to get any of the important details of the piece of news? PURPOSE 1. Does the story seem to be fair and unbiased? 2. Is there evidence that any important facts were suppressed or that the story was colored to conform to the policy of the paper? 3. Is the handling of the news constructive or destructive in its effect? 4. What, if any, is the constructive purpose of the writer? 5. Is the story so treated as to tempt the reader to imitate anti-social acts? TYPE OF STORY 1. Is the primary purpose of the story to inform or to entertain? 2. Is the story largely narrative and descriptive? Is it largely explanatory? Is it largely direct or indirect quotation? 3. If the story is narrative in form, is the order chronological? 13 4. Is the narrative clear or confused? 5. Does the narrative move slowly or briskly? Why? 6. Are accounts of the event by participants or eye-witnesses used? If so, are these accounts in direct or indirect quotation form? 7. Are remarks and conversation of participants and eye-witnesses given? 8. Is the description detailed or suggestive? Is it effective? Why? 9. Is there a striving for effect in the description? 10. If the story is that of a speech, report, etc., is the material arranged in logical order? 11. Is much or little made of the personal, or human interest, element in the story of the speech or the interview? STRUCTURE OF THE STORY 1. Has the story a summary lead or an unconventional beginning? 2. Does the lead contain the essential facts concisely presented? 3. Is the most striking detail played up as the feature in the first group of words of the opening sentence of the lead? 4. What other element in the news might have been featured in the lead? 5. Is the lead proportionate in length to the whole story? 6. How are the details arranged in the body of the story? 7. Is there any evidence that the story was cut down in making up the paper? 8. Are the paragraphs closely connected? 9. Is there unnecessary repetition in the story? 10. Could the arrangement of the details be improved? How? LITERARY STYLE OF THE STORY Paragraphs 1. What is the average length of the paragraphs? 2. Are any of the paragraphs too long or too short? 3. Is each paragraph a unit? 4. Are the details well arranged and closely connected in the paragraphs? 5. Does the first group of words at the beginning of each paragraph attract the reader as his eye glances down the story? 6. Could any of the paragraph beginnings be made more effective? How? Sentences 1. What is the average length of the sentences? 2. Are any of the sentences too long or too short? 3. Is the construction of each sentence evident in rapid reading? 4. Is each sentence a unified expression of a closely related group of ideas? 5. Are the parts of the sentences combined in firm, closely knit construction? 14