Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:44 PM Page iii TURBINE STEAM PATH MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR Volume 1 William P. Sanders, P. Eng. Disclaimer: The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented solely for educational purposes. The author and publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage that results from the use of any of the material in this book. Use of the material in this book is solely at the risk of the user. Sanders, William P. Turbine Steam Path Maintenance and Repair Volume One / William P. Sanders, P.E. p. cm. q.cm Includes index ISBN 0-87814-787-X ISBN13 978-0-87814-787-8 Copyright © 2001 by PennWell Corporation 1421 South Sheridan Road Tulsa, OK 74112 800-752-9764 [email protected] www.pennwell-store.com www.pennwell.com Cover and book design by Robin Brumley All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying or recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 6 12 11 10 09 08 Sanders_CR.indd 1 8/22/08 3:22:34 PM Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xii Turbine Steam Path Maintenance and Repair—Volume One PREFACE The Turbine Steam Path, Damage, Deterioration, and Corrective Options This book has been prepared for those technical people respon- sible for the operation and maintenance of steam turbines. Steam turbines represent a complex technology for units com- monly designed to operate hundreds of thousands of hours while being subjected to a severe environment and a variety of operating phenomena capable of degrading their condition. These units are required to continually operate in a reliable, safe, and cost effective manner. Under such circumstances, these units cannot maintain their original design-specified level of performance indefinitely. All units will deteriorate with age. Owners anticipate this, and designers will normally leave an adequate margin, knowing that some level of such deterioration is tolerable. The technology of steam turbines—while mature—continues to evolve. More accurate and time-responsive diagnostic tools and techniques are becoming available to assist in predicting when a unit has deteriorated to the extent that corrective action is required. Similarly, tools are available to assist the operator in analyzing prob- lems and determining the effective corrective action best suited to the condition causing deterioration. The improved understanding of unit condition and rates of deterioration now achieved, together with advances in materials, should allow units to be maintained in a man- ner that will help minimize maintenance concerns and costs. It is the premise of this book that units “as supplied” will fulfill two basic requirements: xii Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xiii Preface • It is assumed the unit “as designed” represents an optimum selection of component sizing and arrangement • It is assumed the unit “as delivered” meets design specifica- tion within the range of tolerances provided by the design engineer, i.e., unit components have been manufactured, assembled, tested, and installed in such a way that they are in compliance with the original design specification The implication of this second assumption is that if nonconform- ing situations or conditions arose during the total manufacturing process (and exist within the unit), they have been evaluated by a competent design authority in the engineering organization of the manufacturing company and have been assessed as not having an adverse impact on the potential performance of the unit. In terms of turbine unit components, “design optimum” is a dif- ficult term to define. The entire design process is one of compromise by the designer who wants a unit to be both efficient and reliable. These requirements often represent competing demands, forcing the designer to select from among various elements, possibly electing to downgrade one aspect of these requirements to meet the demands of the other. This is done consciously and with detailed evaluation to provide a balanced selection. Units delivered by a manufacturer represent the supply of ele- ments that conform to the design principles established by his or her design function, and conform with the best technology available to that supplier at the time the design specification was prepared. However, the operator must recognize that the labor and material costs involved in building a steam turbine are high, and turbine sup- pliers must be able to produce units at competitive levels sufficient to allow them to achieve a profit margin enabling them to sustain business as well as finance further development. xiii Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xiv Turbine Steam Path Maintenance and Repair—Volume One Many power systems are currently experiencing significant changes in how they operate. Pressures from deregulation, environ- mental concerns and legislation, and an aging fleet of power gener- ating equipment is shifting emphasis from the installation of new capacity to the maintenance and care of the old. There is a continu- ing increase in demand for electric power but new capacity installa- tion is not keeping up with it. Operators of turbine generators are therefore required to meet this demand with their existing fleets— aging units requiring greater care to reduce the possibility of forced outages. The prospect of units experiencing extended outages as damage is found at planned outages. Historically, as units have aged they have tended to be used less frequently. They are initially placed on spinning reserve and ulti- mately placed in reserve, mothballed, or retired—their capacity replaced with newer, more efficient units. An advantage of this dwin- dling reserve is that older units have continued to operate at high load factors and therefore become less susceptible to the rigors of start-up, shut down, and the associated thermal transients. Unfortunately, there have also been fewer opportunities for plant maintenance to proceed with the maintenance outages required to maintain unit operational health. Maintenance problems associated with keeping aging units avail- able are only going to increase. Operators who are expected to pro- vide power on demand are going to experience even greater future challenges of damage and deterioration. They will be expected to identify not only the damage, but also the causative effects, and then find immediate solutions that will not jeopardize system security. This book examines the damage deterioration and failure mecha- nisms occurring with unfortunate consequences—on some units, with monotonous regularity—within the turbine steam path. These various forms of degradation can be the result of a number of factors related to conditions often beyond the control of operating and main- tenance personnel. However, even if the steam turbine is operated xiv Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xv Preface precisely as intended by design, and suffers no external degrading effects for its entire operating life, the steam environment is one that can cause components to suffer various forms of distress. Under nor- mal circumstances, the design process selects and defines individual components suitable for the design operating life of the unit (normal- ly about 200,000 hours). At a mean load factor of about 75%, this represents a 30-year operating life. A number of unavoidable influences affect the operating life of the various components comprising the turbine. These include the steam environment itself, the stresses induced in the components by rotation, and stresses induced in various portions of the unit by expansion of the steam through the blade passages. There are also the effects of the high- pressure steam, causing high-pressure drops across some components that must be contained by the casings. External factors that can affect the reliability of components of the steam path and act to lower the expected operating life include the possible formation of corrosive elements at various locations within the steam cycle, or impurities gaining access from in-leakage at sub-atmospheric pressures. There can be unit trips caused by a number of circumstances, from system trip electrical faults to light- ning strikes on power lines. Many of these factors, while possibly occurring in a 30-year operating life, cannot be anticipated in terms of when, where, how many, or how severe their effects might be. The damage and deterioration that occurs within the steam path can be of several forms. It can result in a gradual material loss—the growth of a crack—or an immediate failure causing a forced outage. Gradual deterioration can (depending upon type and location) be monitored and replacement parts made available, or corrective action taken to rectify the situation before it extends to an unaccept- able degree. Immediate failure is most often the consequence of either mechanical rupture or the presence in the steam path of some foreign object, either generated within or having gained access from some external source (including “drop-ins”). xv Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xvi Turbine Steam Path Maintenance and Repair—Volume One In writing this book, I have tried to present information that plant personnel will be able to use to make value judgments on the type and severity of any damage, suggest possible causes, and then con- sider the most appropriate corrective actions that are available. To aid in the recognition and classifying of operational damage and deterioration, photographs are used to illustrate unacceptable or suspect conditions. Many of the damaging phenomena considered in these chapters do not occur in isolation. It is possible that several can and will occur simultaneously, demonstrating that components are subjected to more than one degrading influence. A condition may initiate due to one damaging mechanism introducing a condition of weakness, which then allows another mechanism to become predominant and drive a component to failure. This situation often occurs even though the driving mechanism would not have been capable of causing fail- ure had not the weakness been introduced by the first, or initiating mechanism. Before considering degradation and failure in any detail, it is important to define what constitutes failure and/or deterioration. An important consideration in any case of evaluation and condition assessment of a turbine is establishing what constitutes failure. The definition I find most acceptable is this: A condition exists within the unit that while it would not prevent the unit from returning to serv- ice and continuing to develop power, it could force it from service before the next planned outage. Various other definitions exist, and the definition of failure used in any situation—and therefore the responsibility for correction—can be controversial. This controversy is to some extent aggravated by possibilities; e.g., a crack that has been determined to exist may be predicted by the methods of frac- ture mechanics to be growing at a rate that would not cause com- plete rupture, forcing the unit from service before the next planned outage. xvi Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xvii Preface As reserve power margins diminish, steam turbines—that cur- rently have operating periods between major maintenance outages of three to eight years—could be forced to operate longer than intended when they were originally returned to service. Under these circumstances, it is difficult when making a prediction of a unit’s future operation, to be certain there will not be some major change in its operating parameters. Parameters that can influence an accept- able definition of failure in any situation include the exact operating period, the unit load pattern, and the steam conditions the unit will experience over a number of years. A simple and conservative solution to this definition of failure would be to change any suspect component showing any crack or unacceptable damage-or-deformation indication. This may appear to be an expensive option, but is considerably less expensive than a forced outage requiring weeks or months to open, repair, await replacement parts, replace those parts, close the unit, and return it to service. Defining efficiency deterioration is somewhat easier. It is even possible to quantify such deterioration in terms of reducing steam path efficiency and unit output. What is not possible to determine is the extent of any mechanical deterioration that may occur and cause efficiency deterioration. This is an unknown situation not recognized until complete mechanical rupture occurs. There is normally no manner to predict such an occurrence—damage could be in the incubation phase—even when an examination of the steam path is made at maintenance outages. During operation, certain situations and phenomena are known to occur that have the potential to initiate damage or to cause dete- rioration in performance. These damaging and deteriorating phe- nomena can be of a continuous or intermittent nature, produced as a consequence of transient operating or steam conditions. Such phe- nomena can also be the result of sudden mechanical failures of com- ponents that cause more extensive consequential damage. The most xvii Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xviii Turbine Steam Path Maintenance and Repair—Volume One commonly occurring of these degrading effects are related to the for- mation of moisture in the steam path or solid foreign particles, pos- sibly from the boiler or scale generated within the superheater and reheater tubes. Other sources include chemical contaminants that are introduced, or gain access to the steam path on which they are deposited, and possibly act as corrosive elements. The other princi- pal degrading condition is the operational phenomena occurring during the operating life of the unit. The first two chapters of this book provide general information. The first outlines what is considered necessary to define and consti- tute a maintenance strategy that represents management’s commit- ment to maintaining a healthy system. This chapter also outlines means of monitoring conditions indicative of damage. The second chapter deals with the spatial arrangement within the steam path and the factors that affect it. This is important because the performance (efficiency and reliability) of a turbine is influenced considerably by the alignment of the unit and the resulting axial and radial clear- ances and “laps” that are achieved in the hot operating condition. Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6 discuss the various phenomena known to affect both the efficiency and structural integrity of the components. In the second volume, chapters 7, 8, and 9 consider repair and refur- bishment options currently available. Fortunately, there are ever-pres- ent advances in these technologies, and as experience is gained, newer and improved methods develop to be applied to older units so they can continue to operate with high levels of availability—often with improved efficiency. Chapter 10 considers seal systems and gland rings, and provides means of estimating the financial penalties associated with excessive leakage. Seals are one area where opera- tors and maintenance personnel can influence the cost of power gen- eration, and help reduce the cost of power to their customers. The final two chapters, 11 and 12, relate to quality and the inspec- tion of elements being manufactured to replace damaged compo- nents. This is an area where many engineers feel the cost of undertak- xviii Sanders Front (i-xxvi).qxd 6/15/01 2:45 PM Page xix Preface ing such inspections is difficult to justify. However, what happens when components—manufactured when they are required in an emergency to return a unit to service—have any form of fault and force the unit from service prematurely? In such a case, the cost of inspection—ensuring that a supplier’s quality program is prepared and operating properly—is well justified. It is often said, “There isn’t time and money to do it right, but there is always time and money to cor- rect it.” This statement is well applied to the manufacture or repair of components in an emergency, because the cost of a second outage is just as high as the first, and far more embarrassing. Because the steam turbine is a thermal machine designed to con- vert thermal energy to rotation kinetic energy, I have included an appendix that provides the basic thermal relationships required to understand the turbine and its operation. Situation evaluation The more susceptible areas in any turbine unit are a function of many complex factors—individual stress levels, stress concentration, mode of operation, and the operating environment. Individual com- ponents are also greatly influenced by the expertise with which the parts were designed, manufactured, and assembled, and the oper- ating transients to which they have been subjected. The diversity of the factors that can contribute to damage precludes any generaliza- tion of cause or value. Steam path components are subjected to high stress, both direct and alternating. Many parts operate at high tem- peratures and are of complex forms interacting with one another in unpredictable ways. These factors, when combined with load and temperature transients that occur during operation, combine to make the steam path highly sensitive and a major source of concern to the designer and operator. While some concerns are common to most operators, the type of deterioration or damage to which any component or area is subjected xix