Trotter review. v. 10, no. 2 (1997 Spring) Periodicals E 85.86 .T77 1 EUW2K2* TROTTER REVIEW Spring 1997 The Black Church: Facing and Responding to Social, Economic, and Political Challenges Volume 10, Number 2 Spring 1997 INSIDE • 3 Introduction Review James Jennings Trotter • 5 The Church andNegro Progress George E. Haynes Editor James Jennings •10 Black Church Politics and the Million Man March Associate Director William E. Nelson, Jr. Harold Horton •15 Religious Institutions and Black PoliticalActivism Frederick C. Harris •18 The Black Church: The 'Cocoon' forthe Black 'Butterfly' and the African-American Music Idiom Hubert Walters •22 Burning Hate: The Torching ofBlack Churches Salim Muwakkil •25 A Time to Question: The Role ofthe Black Church in British Society Paul Grant •27 Public Sectorand Black Church Partnerships: A New Public Policy Tool Marjorie B. Lewis •29 Strengthening Black Churches: A Collaborative Approach Sylvia R. Johnson •31 Building on a RadicalFoundation: The Work ofTheologian Howard Thurman Continues Stephanie Athey •35 The Sacredas the Basis forHuman Creativity andAgencyin the Black Church Cheryl Townsend Gilkes COMMENTARY •39 The Substance ofThings Hoped For: A Memoir of African-American Faith by The Trotter Review is published by The Samuel DeWitt Proctor: A Review Essay William Monroe Trotter Institute, University MA Donald Cunnigen of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, 02125-3393. Subscriptions are $8.00 per •42 An Interview with Dr. Robert M. Franklin, Jr., year for individuals and $22.00 per year President of The Interdenominational for institutions. Opinions expressed herein Theological Center, Atlanta, Georgia are those of the authors, or persons Harold W. Horton interviewed, and are not necessarily shared •44 A Profile ofthe Reverend Michael E. Haynes by the university or the editors. ofTwelfth Baptist Church in Roxbury, Massachusetts http://www.trotterinst.org Kimberly R. Moffitt Copyright 1997 The William Monroe Trotter •46 Selected TrotterInstitute Publications Institute. ISSN 1040-6573 Introduction Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam: the Million Man March. On October 16, 1995, more than one million men congregated in Washington DC. to pay homage to the by James Jennings teachings of Black religious institutions in the United States. In a related topic, historian Frederick C. Harris In the 1980s and 1990s numerous studies about the shows how a broad range of political involvement of the status and future prospects of the Black community in the Black Church is generally supported by members of the United States were published. Unfortunately, too many of congregation. His research, based on a review of polls, these studies ignored the historical role that the Black has uncovered significant support, but still some Church has played in the economic and political ambivalence, regarding this matter. Professor Hubert development of the Black community in this country. Walters, one of the original founders of the Kuumba Some scholars and researchers, as well as others in civic Singers at Harvard University, also provides some arenas, have overlooked not only the historical and historical information explaining that the Black Church is institutional resiliency of the Black church, but the current the foundation of commercial Black music today. work of this institution in the areas of social, cultural, and Despite the work of the Black Church in democratizing educational empowerment of people of African descent in United States society, this institution has been threatening the United States. to some groups. As a symbol of political and economic As historian Andrew Billingsley has pointed out, the independence and resistance, Black churches have been Black Church is actually the very "first community bombed and its members terrorized. As we know, this institution" owned, operated, and directed by Black situation is not just past history, but continues as a major people, even during the period of Black enslavement. problem today. Journalist Salim Muwakkil shares some Many Black churches have pursued a "holistic ministry" thoughts with our readers regarding the recent providing a range of services to the community, including reemergence of Black church bombings. services in the area of health, housing, education, and In an important article bridging the experiences of the economic development. But this is not a new Black Church in the United States with the Black Church development. As our first essay illustrates, published by in England, Paul Grant describes some of the challenges George E. Haynes in 1928, the Black Church was facing the latter. As is the case in the United States, the involved in improving living conditions in Black Black Church in England has opportunity to be involved communities a long time before government, foundations, in improving living conditions for all people through or universities adopted an interest in this area. work in the social and economic arenas of people's lives. The Black Church is still, as it was when Blacks were But it must overcome its hesitancy to utilize and endorse enslaved in this country, the most prominent institution in radical social change in British society. this community. It is in the Black Church that we find Dr. Marjorie B. Lewis proposes in her article that some of the most committed individuals working to partnerships between the Black Church and non-profits, empower the Black community. The Black Church and government is a relatively new and effective policy generally commands impressive assets, such as land, tool for urban communities challenged by poverty. It is economic independence, entrepreneurship, and critical to examine and utilize this tool due to the failures volunteerism. of earlier policy efforts aimed at social and urban crisis. In order to understand and appreciate the critical She highlights a few places where public sector and Black importance of the Black Church in the empowerment of church partnerships seem to be effective. Dr. Sylvia Blacks and, indeed, other communities of color in the Johnson writes about a new effort to link foundations with United States, I am pleased to introduce the Spring 1997 the Black Church in the interests of community and issue of the Trotter Review. As noted above, we begin this economic empowerment. Under the leadership of Dr. issue with a reprinting of an essay by George E. Haynes, Johnson and her colleagues at The Hyams Foundation in originally published in 1928, as part of a report issued by Boston, Massachusetts, this foundation has taken a lead in the Commission on the Church and Race Relations and building models of collaboration with Black churches. sponsored by the Federal Council of the Churches of Many foundations across the nation are watching this Christ in America. Haynes described the involvement of initiative carefully in order to plan similar efforts in their the Black Church in the Black community during the own cities. 1920s, and illustrates the critical role that this institution Another local effort is highlighted by Dr. Stephanie played in the social and economic, as well as spiritual, Athey of Stetson University in Florida. She describes the survival of Black people in this country. Special mission and work of the Dr. Howard Thurman Center in appreciation and thanks are extended to Sage Publications DeLand County, under the directorship of Reverend for allowing us to reprint this important article. Jefferson P. Rogers. Dr. Howard Thurman served as a The distinguished professor of Black Studies at The leading theologian for advancing knowledge and Ohio State University, William Nelson, provides a review developing appropriate relationships with political, social, of how the Black Church was involved in one of the and economic institutions through application of the biggest and most important events organized by the Black resources ofthe Black Church. community under the leadership of Minister Louis The last essay in this section by Dr. Cheryl Townsend Gilkes helps to make the point that the basis of the work communications at Howard University, provides a profile of the Black Church is still spiritual. The author illustrates of an individual who epitomizes the history, work, and that the motivating force behind the political, economic, commitment of the Black Church towards the social, and social work of the Black Church is the Sacred. As we economic, and political empowerment of the Black discuss how the Black Church is involved in a range of community. I am honored that this issue of the Trotter facets of Black life, this observation cannot be overlooked Review is featuring a brief profile of the Reverend for it explains the commitment, energy, and sacrifice that Michael E. Haynes of Twelfth Baptist Church in Roxbury, is corralled in service towards a more democratic and just Massachusetts. Reverend Haynes is not only a friend of society. The Trotter Institute, but a role model for many people in In the Commentary section of this issue, we begin with Boston and throughout the country. He has embodied in a review essay of Dr. Samuel Dewitt Proctor's recent his religious, professional, and political work the impact work, The Substance of Things Hoped For: A Memoir of that the Black Church can have in improving the lives of African-American Faith. The reviewer, Dr. Donald all people in our society. Cunnigen, discusses Dr. Proctor's book within the context of the values that seems to have guided Dr. Proctor's faith and scholarship. The following piece highlights an organization dedicated to involving the Black Church more aggressively in the economic and civic empowerment of the Black community. Dr. Harold W. Horton, associate director of the Trotter Institute, interviews Dr. Robert Franklin who was recently appointed director of the Interdenominational Theological Center in Atlanta, Georgia. As such, Dr. Franklin will James Jennings is director of The Trotter Institute and seek to expand and facilitate church-based institutions and professor of political science at University of Massachusetts partnerships with organizations focusing on the social and Boston. He is the author of a number of books, including Blacks, Latinos, and Asians in Urban America and Race, economic improvement ofBlack communities. Politics, and Economic Development: Community Ms. Kimberly Moffitt, currently pursuing a doctorate in Perspectives. The Church and were about 100 four-year course private high schools and a similar number of private schools offering sonic- Negro Progress secondary work of three years or less, at least three fourths of these private high schools were church- supported. by George Haynes E. Twelve years have witnessed some improvement as is shown in figures compiled by W. A. Robinson for The marked progress of the Negro in America in which 1926-27 for the sixteen southern states: There were 167 the church has been a factor has been of three general public and 84 private state accredited four-year course types. The first is intra-group advancement in such phases high schools for Negroes. But these should be contrasted of life as education and wealth. The second is inter-group with 4,760 public and 547 private state accredited four- adjustments between the Negro population and the white year high schools for whites. The Negro population of population in such matters as economic relationships, these states was 9,008,096 and the white population citizenship rights and privileges, interracial contacts and 28,596,689 in 1920. Meager as it is, more than one-third fellowship. There is a third type of progress which of real secondary education among Negroes of the South touches both the internal and external life of the Negro today would disappear if high schools now supported by group such as the cultural contributions of Negroes which church educational and mission boards were discontinued. have gradually been incorporated into our common life. The public schools during preceding decades have There are, of course, the emotional attitudes, the growing been largely supplied with teachers from normal and group solidarity and consciousness, the development of industrial schools and colleges all of which, except about moral customs and similar mental and social factors thirty-four land-grant colleges and normal and industrial which the church has profoundly influenced but which are schools receiving largely state aid, were founded and not measurable by the data and objective tests now nurtured through infancy by churches or were the direct available. offshoots of institutions so founded. The history of such institutions as Hampton Institute, Howard University, Fisk Educational Progress University, Talladega College, Wiley College, Virginia In the educational progress of Negroes the church has Union University, Morehouse College and Knoxville performed two functions: (1) Financial support and College, to name only a few examples, bears eloquent administrative development of schools of several grades testimony that the church nurtured Negro educational and of colleges; (2) An organized channel for distribution development. The fact should be added that these schools of information and emotional stimulation to the rank and are receiving increased financial support from Negro file of the Negro group. In the first field the white church constituents, and that such institutions as Protestant churches of the North have performed the Wilberforce University, Livingstone College and Texas larger part of the service, but the distinctly Negro College were founded and developed by the Negro churches have had an increasing share. In the second field churches. It may be safely asserted that up to 1910 the obviously Negro churches, both those in distinctly Negro trained leadership of the Negro people in America, with a denominations and Negro congregations in mixed few exceptions, was the product of schools and colleges communions, have been almost entirely the means of fostered by white and Negro churches, and that a major group service. share of the present higher educational training of The Protestant Church missionary societies following Negroes is in institutions largely supported by the the Civil War opened schools with curricula and teachers churches. that introduced the idea of popular education in the South. Upon that pioneer work has been built the public Influence of the Negro Church elementary schools for Negroes now gradually gaining The influence of the Negro church as an agency for support from public taxes in southern states through the distribution of information to the rank and file of the stimulus of such agencies as the Jeanes-Slater Funds, the Negro group has long been recognized by the business Julius Rosenwald Fund and the General Education Board. and professional classes. Negro business enterprises ally Negro high schools are still largely dependent upon themselves with Negro churches, cultivate their ministers church agencies for support and supervision. The rapidly and seek Negro church fairs, bazaars and picnics as growing county training schools that are attaining high occasions to advertise their wares. Negro doctors, school standards have accelerated the sentiment among dentists, lawyers and politicians of both races for obvious whites for public support. The effect of the church support reasons frequent these churches, speak in their meetings, upon provision of high school opportunities for Negroes and contribute liberally to their collections. In many cases in the South is shown by the fact that in 1915 there were they criticize the Negro churches and ministers, but probably about 45 four-year course and 18 three-year realize they can reach and influence a larger number of course public schools in thirteen southern states. There Negroes through this channel than any other. This article wasfirstpublished in The Annals, vol. CXXXX, no. 229 (November 1928). Special thanks to Sage Publications, Inc.forgrantingpermission topublish it in this issueoftheTrotterReview. The significance of this mass contact is shown by the feasible, schools are better, houses and homes are often figures of Negro church membership the past thirty years. more comfortable. The Negro churches with resident Of denominations exclusively Negro in 1906, there were ministers become the centers for musical and literary 2,311,172 members enrolled in Baptist church bodies; entertainments. Stereoptican or moving picture shows, 869,710 enrolled in Methodist church bodies; and 24,165 traveling musicians and lecturers, church fairs and other enrolled in other church bodies. In 1916 there were exhibitions become the means of community culture. In 2,967,085 in Baptist church bodies; 1,077,324 enrolled in the large metropolitan cities the Negro church, of course, Methodist church bodies, and 38,869 enrolled in other comes somewhat into competition with the moving Negro church bodies. Incomplete United States Census picture theatre, the dance hall and other places that cater figures for 1926 give for two exclusively Negro Baptist to leisure. In a scientific survey of Negro life in Detroit in bodies an enrollment of 3,240,801 members; for eight 1926, the Mayor's Interracial Committee reported that the exclusively Negro Methodist bodies, 1,235,789 members; Negro "has been humiliated in so many public and and for twelve other Negro church bodies 181,880 privately owned institutions and amusement places that he members. has resorted to the church as a place in which he can be Of Negro members in communions having mixed sure of peacefully spending his leisure time. To a large membership, in 1906 Baptist bodies enrolled 43,617 extent it takes the place of the theatre, the dance halls and Negro members; Methodist bodies enrolled 312,421 similar amusement places, and fills the vacancy created Negro members, and other bodies enrolled 83,507 Negro by the failure of the public and commercial places of members. In 1916, Baptist bodies enrolled 53,842 Negro recreation and amusement to give him a cordial welcome. members; Methodist bodies enrolled 323,713 Negro Consequently, the average Negro church in Detroit keeps members; and other bodies enrolled 103,216 Negro its doors open constantly for the use of the community. members. Figures for Negroes in mixed communions in Numerous suppers, lectures, recitals, debates, plays and 1926 are not available at this writing. the like are given by clubs and individuals from within The total enrollment of Negroes in church membership and without the congregation."2 is larger than their membership in any other organization, and probably as large as the membership of fraternities, Functions of the Negro Church clubs, insurance companies and similar organizations Similar outlet for leisure-time activity is being combined. Church members, furthermore, by no means provided by Negro churches in Jacksonville, Fla., Atlanta, embrace all who attend church meetings. Probably three- Gal, Baltimore, Md., Washington, D.C., Chicago, fourths of the Negro population of more than eleven Cleveland, Philadelphia, New York, Springfield, Mass., millions regularly or occasionally attend meetings in and many other cities. Many of these are institutional churches. churches with programs, equipment and personnel both The Negro church as a channel for distribution of volunteer and employed, that compare favorably with the information and of emotional stimulation is indicated by best in popular educational and recreational provision for the figures of mass grouping just outlined and emphasized city neighborhoods. These examples, however, should not by a description of the activities that center in the church lead to the conclusion that the 47,000 Negro churches, or of the Negro community, separated as it is from most of a majority of them, have embraced the programs, the other intellectual, political and emotional avenues of technique and policies required to serve the health, expression. The Negro as a worker makes contact with the housing, recreational and other community needs of the white world when on his job and receives information, Negro. Progress in this adjustment of the Negro church instruction and stimulus so far as his occupation has been slow due in good measure to the past policy and influences his ways of life. All his leisure-time activities practice of white philanthropists and social work leaders. that condition intellectual development and emotional With the background of the limited function of the church motivation under present conditions of segregated Negro among themselves, they have subsidized community life, must find their channel main—ly through the principal efforts for improvement of the Negro masses apart from community agency the Negro has his church. the Negro church, the principal agency that commands the These activities vary in the rural district, the small loyalty of the Negro people. Consequently much of the towns and cities and the larger metropolitan centers. In efforts of communities to elevate the Negro have missed each rural area there are at least two small Negro the mark and the main agency for his group advancement churches, a Baptist and a Methodist Church, each having has not been adequately developed for the social power it religious services once or twice a month and receiving can wield. inspiration from an absentee minister on his occasional That many churches have served these needs and are Sunday visits. The meetings, however, are occasions for slowly adapting their programs to meet rapidly changing exchange of gossip on local events and for the spread of conditions with the migration of Negroes to cities is news and stimulation from the larger world. School, home clearly indicated by such facts as these: For about ten and farm affairs are here discussed. During the summer years the white women of the Southern Presbyterian when weather and roads allow it, sociables and picnics Church have held annual institutes of seven days each for center around the church or are fostered by it. Negro women in the southern states. In 1927 these In the small towns and cities larger group life is institutes were held in thirteen states to train colored women for community leadership in such matters as child of collective action, [f that church becomes more training, food conservation, health and domestic science. conscious of its working-class character it will become a The total attendance in ten states in 1925 was 429. The significant factor in industrial relations of the two races women of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, have In the farming areas of the South the Negro church is fostered community centers in several southern cities in recognized as the one agency that sways the mass of cooperation with Negro churches and schools. The workers. This has, of course, often been used to the Methodist Episcopal Church has a full-time secretary with disadvantage of the Negro peasant. That is not always the assistants who are studying conditions, holding social case, however. For example: The farm demonstration service institutes with its Negro ministers and fostering movement has received the cooperation of Negro church projects in community betterment. The Protestant churches; in plantation areas wherever Negro tenants have Episcopal Church has a training school for Negro social sought better terms in any concerted way their efforts workers, and the Congregational churches are seeking to have centered around a Negro church. establish a line of churches North and South for serving the social needs of Negro communities.' These samples Civic Relationships indicate the connection of the Church with Negro life and Space allows only a few illustrations of the influence a growing adaptation to meet their needs. of the church in the Negro's struggle for free citizenship The relation of Negro churches to Negro progress in status. Henry Ward Beecher and his more illustrious sister, wealth may be seen in the value of church property Harriet Beecher Stowe, received their inspiration and did estimated by the Negro Year Book in 1926 at a large part of their great work for freedom of the slave $100,000,000. This includes school property and through the Church. One of the pioneer Negro advocates parsonages owned by Negro churches as well as buildings of unqualified enjoyment of citizenship rights and used for worship, religious education and social service. privileges was H. M. Turner, himself a freed slave, a Most of this property has been accumulated from small Bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. This contributions of millions of volunteer givers. It represents same organization for more than a hundred years has had the oldest and most continuous, if not the largest and most a line of prelates known within and without the Negro significant, thrift effort of the Negro group. This world for their uncompromising stand on civic rights and combination of thrift funds from small givers worked out privileges for the race. The present-day tendency of many in the church has been applied elsewhere, and largely out Negro voters to show their political independence by of it has grown the Negro fraternal beneficial allying themselves with the Democratic Party had its organizations which in 1926 had $218,984,213 benefit inception largely in the dramatic bolt to the support of certificates in force, $9,349,051 of assets, and paid Woodrow Wilson in 1912 of Bishop Alexander Walters of $2,727,929 in sickness and death benefits. Were the facts the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, who available, the encouragement for other wealth announced his stand in an address at a mass meeting accumulations of the group could probably be traced to which crowded Carnegie Hall in New York, and by a Negro churches. While proof from statistical data is not spectacular procession to the Baltimore Democratic available, general observation leads to the impression that Convention with his followers, of them prominent Negro Negro educational progress outlined in the preceding churchmen. The National Association for the paragraphs has had its collateral effect in the increase of Advancement of Colored People during nearly a score of wealth among Negroes, especially the professional years of work for equality of citizenship for Americans of classes, and in narrowing the margin of poverty among color has leaned upon the Negro churches for meeting wage-earners. places, for large parts of its audiences at public meetings and for financial support. Economic Relationships In the advancement of interracial adjustment perhaps Interracial Cooperation the church would not usually be thought of in the field of Interracial contacts under influence of the Church economic relationships. While difficult to measure, the between whites and Negroes, especially in the South, Negro church has been, nevertheless, a powerful factor in have been important since the days when many white organized economic expression of the group. The churches had pews for slaves and many able Negro Secretary of the Detroit Urban League in 1918 testified preachers "broke the Bread of Life" to white parishioners. that in the placement of about 10,000 Negro workers, men After emancipation the Methodist Episcopal Church, and women, for the fiscal year ending November 15, South, attended the birth of the Colored Methodist 1917, those secured through church channels were the Episcopal Church and ordained its first bishop as a most satisfactory; so much so that the employment communion for the freedmen who had formerly been recruiters of the city turned from pool rooms, saloons and members of the southern body. (Throughout the years similar places of rendezvous to the churches as the since there has been comity hetween clergy and laymen of principal source for their labor supply. The Negro worker the two denominations locally and nationally.) While not is still hesitant, because of past experience, about entering so formally organized as the Methodists, the white and heartily into labor organizations with white workers. His Negro Baptists, North and South, have sustained contacts church is a working-class institution and is still his avenue which embraced cooperation in action and comity in religious doctrine. Cultural Developments The growing liberal opinion in the South on the race The contributions which Negroes have made to question had its inception and continues to get its American culture have had a unique relation to the Negro stimulation largely through the contacts of churchmen, church. Negro spirituals in Negro church meetings were white and colored. The outstanding men and women of born out of the yearning for self-expression which the this movement, especially among southern white people, Negro found only in religious group worship. These songs have been officers and laymen of prominence in the yield spiritual as well as musical substance of universal churches, and some of the most important public value. Adaptations and art compositions, too numerous to utterances of organized groups of whites on the race mention here, based upon these Negro creations have problem the past twenty years have been from church delighted music lovers in Europe and America. Negro groups such as the College of Bishops, the General musicians, poets and prose writers and artists found Conference and the Women's Council of the Methodist encouragement from Negro church audiences years before Episcopal Church, South, the Women's Auxiliary of the the white public knew they existed. Roland Hayes, one of Southern Presbyterian Church, the Southern Baptist the world's great singers, largely served his apprenticeship Convention, the Northern Baptist Convention, the in concerts under such auspices. The budding of Fine Arts National Council of Congregational Churches, and the produced by Negroes has, fortunately, had the stimulus of General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. school instruction and some philanthropic support, but In recent years the churches have recognized that the Henry O. Tanner, the Negro artist who has so far achieved very success of sixty years of educational work they have the widest recognition, is the son of a Negro bishop, shared in rendering the Negro people has developed a received his nurture in the church and has rewarded him highly intelligent, cultured class and has raised the level with remarkable artistic creations from Bible themes. of intelligence of the whole group. With corresponding reduction of poverty and serfdom has come a growing and Attitudes and Morale insistent demand for participation in all the varied To venture upon a discussion of emotional attitudes departments of American life. White and Negro church and the growth of group consciousness in relation to the leaders for the past twenty years through more than church is too hazardous in view of the meager data and twenty-eight denominations have been experimenting in objective tests. That the Negro church has heen the means effective methods of education in friendly racial attitudes of increasing group organization, solidarity and power to and in practical constructive programs of peaceful race serve a growing group consciousness of values and adjustment toward this end. The first line of action has purpose is indicated by the increasing membership, been a participation in the campaign to abolish the especially in church denominations exclusively Negro; by lynching evil and remove the racial discrimination in the the increase in Negro church property estimated by the courts of law, as the first step toward security of person NegroYear Book in 1926 as $98,500,000 since 1866 and and property. by the number, the independence and the aggressiveness The church leaders, however, have visualized a larger ofNegro church leaders. and more positive program and have been laying a Throughout the three centuries of hectic Negro life in foundation for it by an educational campaign of America the Negro church and religious life has given a conferences, study and discussion groups, the preparation motivation born of hope in the future and faith in the and distribution of books and pamphlets, etc. present that has sustained the morale and lengthened the Conservative estimate places the number of church patience of the Negro under conditions which either broke constituents already touched by this educational effort as the Indian's spirit or drove him into the revolt of despair. between four and five millions. The dominant idea of In his church services the Negro felt the elevation of his these interracial contacts has not been the desire of the belief in God who respected his personality while the whites to exploit the blacks, nor the patronizing policy of surrounding world humiliated and exploited him. The superiors who would uplift the lowly, but a clear Negro minister usually was deficient in the erudition of recognition of mutual advantage of remarkable artistic the schools, but he shared the humiliations and trials of creations from Bible interaction on the horizontal plane his people and knew from experience how to reach the themes where both races have substantial values to motivating forces of their imagination and emotions and contribute. to energize them for the trials oftheir present plight by the Partly as a result of these efforts to adjust racial promises of freedom, peace and plenty in a Better Land. relations there has been increased church support for Probably this same factor has made the Negro church Negro education, in a rapid multiplication of interracial such a powerful force among Negroes migrating to committees and groups for various community and southern cities and to northern industrial centers. Cases cultural enterprises of mutual interest in the study of the are on record of whole church congregations moving problems in more than sixty southern white colleges, and North in a body and bringing their pastors with them. in the participation of the Negro both as contributor and In another direction the Negro church has given social beneficiary in the welfare programs of almost every state compensation for the restrictions of the segregated, and city where there are Negro populations of large handicapped life ofNegroes in America. The Negro group proportions. has potential leaders seeking creative expression far 8 beyond the opportunities the white world allows under the unfavorably, conserving forces and sustaining practices existing social pressure of race prejudices and taboos. In upon which social progress had pronounced sentence. The economic life the higher paid employment and the divisive force of zealous denominationalisni. the executive and managerial positions are closed to Negroes. consequent weakening of leadership and the In the broader fields of education the avenues to multiplication of edifices ill adapted lot serving present leadership in administration, research and instruction are needs are all faults chargeable to the church. not open to them. Similar situations have confronted the In spite of these weaknesses, however, no one Negro aspirant for leadership in many other fields. institution has probably contributed as much to Negro Gradually the Negro doctor and dentist won places development. In the development of education and thrift. through Negro patronage, but even here the social in the interracial adjustments between white and Negro pressure of the color line still operates in some medical populations and in the interdependent give-and-take of schools, in hospitals and in nurse training schools. Until cultural life in America, as well as the less tangible social recent years, therefore, Negroes with talent for leadership factors of interracial contacts, of group organization, found their main outlet in church organizations. The rapid racial attitudes, solidarity and motivation, the church and growth of Negro church membership during the past especially the segregated Negro church, has been a thirty years, in the face of the multiplying distractions of powerful ally of Negro progress. modern living and the changed conditions of urban residence, is partially explained by the church as a field Notes for leadership excluded from other avenues and by the 'W.A. Robinson. "Four-Year Accredited High Schools in the South." The Bulletin ofthe NationalAssociation ofTeachers in ColoredSchools, volume \iii. motivating force of emotional and imaginative self- numberviii, (June/July 1928). expression in Negro church exercises. 2Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research, Inc. The Negro in Detroit. (Detroit: Detroit Bureau ofGovernmental Research. 1926). ...no one institution has probably contributed as much to Negro development. In the phases of life touched upon here, and in others George E. Haynes served as secretary of the Commission on the Church and Race Relations for the Federal Council of the not mentioned, the church has influenced favorably Negro Churches of Christ in America during the writing of this article progress. It has sometimes affected Negro life in 1928. Black Church America and the deterioration of the social, cultural, and Politics moral fabric of the Black community, Black men came to and the Washington, in the words of the march's mission statement, "Committed to the ongoing struggle for a free Man March and empowered community, a just society and a better Million world."6 Defining ingredients of the march's political agenda included challenges to the government to stop the by William E. Nelson, Jr. brutal assault against affirmative action, establish programs to provide affordable health care and housing, October 16, 1995 will be recorded as one of the most and pass legislation creating an economic bill of rights important days in the political history of African and a plan to rebuild America's declining cities.7 One Americans in the United States. This day witnessed the aspect of this political agenda also sought to repair the largest mass political demonstration in the history of this negative, stereotypical image of Black men manufactured — nation the assemblage of more than 1.2 million African- by the American media. Worldwide publicity surrounding American men in Washington, D.C. under the banner of the lives of Black men like Willie Horton, Mike Tyson, the Million Man March.1 Both the size and the overt and O.J. Simpson stamped all Black men in America with political objectives of the march set it firmly apart from a demonized personality, and placed Black men on a war- the pallid, feeble demonstrations in Washington led by the like footing with white America: NAACP in the 1980s; in its size and character, the march echoed the focus on power and system level change that The emancipation of black men has been emerged as the hallmark of the 1960s Civil Rights abandoned. The communications with black Movement and the national mobilization against the war men have been cut off, which is what happens in Vietnam. when you're on a war footing with the enemy. One key political objective of the march was to place Talks break down and hostility begins. Their the issue of Black suffering back on the national policy books are seldom used in college courses agenda.2 Since the Republican triumph in the November anymore. A variety of viewpoints from black 1994 midterm elections and the publicizing of the party's men are ignored by the white male-run media "Contract With America," the continuing and expanding who prefer athletes and criminals, and other social and economic crisis of the Black community had dopey people and use black and white virtually disappeared as an arena of public policy debate. feminists to blame all the social evils of society Republican political rhetoric papered over the most vital on black men, while theirs go unchecked.8 dimensions of the crisis in international capitalism and blamed Black inner city victims for domestic economic To combat these negative stereotypes, and establish an woes that threatened to produce record deficits, massive enduring base of functional power for the entire Black unemployment, and uncontrolled inflation.3 Absent from community, the leaders of the march realized that the the analysis was a realistic appraisal of Black social and march must be well organized and coordinated, economic decline: a poverty rate of over 40 percent; extraordinarily peaceful, and sufficiently inclusive to unemployment rates that averaged two times that of embrace the entire panoply of political interests in the whites; health and housing standards matching those of Black community. In this regard it should be noted that city dwellers in some of the world's poorest countries; the march was successful in drawing representation from median family incomes averaging 58 percent of white virtually every sector of the Black community. One study median family incomes. Statistics regarding the social and conducted by a research team from Central State economic status of Black men suggested that they were University found that the occupations of the marchers the special victims of American racial oppression. ranged from business owners to a wide variety of Environmental circumstances rendered the lives of young unskilled workers, paraprofessionals, professionals and Black men extremely perilous; homicide had become one skilled tradesmen.9 The heavy representation of middle- of the leading causes of death among young Black men, class Black men at the march suggests that a broad with 72 Black men per 100,000 falling victim to homicide reservoir of racial consciousness continues to exist among compared to 9.3 white men per 100,000.4 Aggressive law this important segment ofthe Black population.10 enforcement and prison building policies meant the The policy goals of the march contained a pronounced incarceration of young Black men in unprecedented political slant. Organizers of the march expressed the numbers, leaving a vacuum of political and family desire to see the mass mobilization in Washington result leadership that had a devastating impact on the sustained in highly successful voter education, registration, and growth potential ofthe Black community.5 turnout campaigns in cities, towns, and hamlets across The Million Man March was, in part, Black America's America. Relying heavily on the concepts of Black response to these developments. Black men descended on nationalism and self-determination, march leaders sought Washington determined to bring the spiral of social and to establish grassroots networks in local communities economic erosion in the Black community to a halt. capable of creating permanent bases of functional power Expressing extreme concern for increasing racism in for the Black community in local, state, and national 10