Supriya Tiwari · Madhoolika Agrawal Tropospheric Ozone and its Impacts on Crop Plants A Threat to Future Global Food Security Tropospheric Ozone and its Impacts on Crop Plants Supriya Tiwari • Madhoolika Agrawal Tropospheric Ozone and its Impacts on Crop Plants A Threat to Future Global Food Security Supriya Tiwari Madhoolika Agrawal Department of Botany, Institute of Science Department of Botany, Institute of Science Banaras Hindu University Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, UP, India Varanasi, UP, India ISBN 978-3-319-71872-9 ISBN 978-3-319-71873-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71873-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962321 © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 This work is subject to copyright. 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Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface The presence of ozone in low quantities in the troposphere has been well estab- lished since the pre-industrial times. However, sudden unpredicted increase in background concentrations of ozone in the last few decades has alarmed environ- mentalists worldwide. As a secondary pollutant which is formed by a series of pho- tochemical reactions, ozone concentration in the troposphere depends upon a number of factors, the important ones being meteorological variables and rate of emission of ozone precursors like nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. In the last few years, although developed countries like the USA have managed to bring down their rate of emission of important ozone precursors, background ozone concentration has still registered an increase. The unplanned urbanization and industrialization practised in developing countries, especially those in south and east Asia, have made these regions important hotspots for ozone production in the near future. The recently proposed concept of intercontinental transportation has a significant influence on the tropospheric ozone budget of a region irrespective of the extent of air quality legislations followed in that region. Ozone, therefore, has assumed a global significance rather than remaining confined as a regional problem. The present scenario of global climate change has predicted significant varia- tions in the different meteorological variables that play major roles in in situ ozone production. As such, climate change has a strong influence on the global tropo- spheric budget. In addition, climate change also modifies the stratospheric- tropospheric intrusion of ozone which is also an important component in determining tropospheric ozone budget. Apart from ozone formation, the halogen chemistry involved in ozone destruction is also important in establishing the global tropo- spheric ozone concentration. This book not only discusses the different aspects that control ozone concentration in the troposphere, but also emphasizes the role of cli- mate change in regulating tropospheric ozone budget directly or indirectly. The phytotoxic effects of tropospheric ozone can be attributed to its oxidizing nature. Ozone has the potential to generate extra reactive oxygen species (ROS) like superoxide dismutase, hydroxyl ions, singlet oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide which disturb the normal metabolism of the cell/plant. Plants have a built-in constitutive v vi Preface enzymatic antioxidant system and a non-enzymatic antioxidant system which are stimulated in response to ROS generation. Under stress conditions, the ROS genera- tion exceeds the scavenging capacity of the cellular defence machinery which dis- rupts the various biochemical and physiological processes of the cell. The main targets of ozone-induced ROS are the cellular and subcellular membranes whose permeability is affected due to the peroxidation of their lipid components. Plants exposed to ozone show different symptoms which are indicative of ozone- induced stress and ultimately lead to reduced carbon fixation. In addition to this, the biomass allocation pattern of the ozone-stressed plants is also disturbed, thus affect- ing its yield components. Several ozone impact assessment programmes and indi- vidual experiments conducted worldwide have proved that ozone induces significant yield reductions in important staple food crops. Several modelling studies further suggest that in view of the unchecked continuous increase in ozone concentration, the yield reductions are further bound to increase which may prove to be a serious threat to global food security in the near future. Since ozone formation in the troposphere requires a diversified setup, it is diffi- cult to check the increasing concentration of ozone around the globe. Therefore, the need of the hour is to develop certain strategies that allow the plants to alleviate or minimize the ozone-induced stress. Carbon dioxide fertilization and soil nutrient amendments are the important techniques discussed in this book that show promis- ing results as far as the yield response of plants under ozone stress is concerned. However, more experimentations and thorough studies related to the mechanism of alleviation of ozone stress should be pursued before actually implementing their use as tools for minimizing ozone injury. This book provides a valuable overview of issues related to increasing concentra- tion of tropospheric ozone, focussing on the response of plants to ozone stress. Ozone itself is a major environmental problem, and the present climate change sce- nario has further increased the frequency of occurrence of favourable events pro- moting ozone formation leading to increased tropospheric ozone budget. This book will be quite useful for the students of various branches of biological and environ- mental science. Varanasi, UP, India Supriya Tiwari Madhoolika Agrawal Contents 1 Ozone Concentrations in Troposphere: Historical and Current Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 Pre-historic Ozone Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 Present Scenario of Ozone Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4 Recent Trends in Ozone Concentration Over North America . . . . . 10 5 Recent Trends in Ozone Concentration Over Europe . . . . . . . . . . . 11 6 Recent Trends in Ozone Concentration Over Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 7 Seasonal and Diurnal Variations in Ozone Concentrations . . . . . . . 17 8 Future Predictions in Ozone Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2 Tropospheric Ozone Budget: Formation, Depletion and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2 Ozone Formation in the Troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.1 Stratospheric – Tropospheric Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2 In-situ Photochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.3 Role of O Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3 2.4 Effect of Meteorological Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3 Ozone Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4 Effect of Climate Change on Ozone Budget in Troposphere . . . . . 52 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3 Effect of Ozone on Physiological and Biochemical Processes of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2 Ozone Uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3 ROS Generation in the Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4 Defense Strategy of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 vii viii Contents 5 Membrane Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 6 Effect of Ozone on Physiological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 6.1 Biochemistry of Photosynthetic Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 6.2 Biophysical Variations Upon O Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3 7 E ffect on the Antioxidant Pool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 8 E ffects on Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 9 E ffect of Ozone on Nitrogen Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 10 C onclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4 O zone Biomonitoring, Biomass and Yield Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 1 I ntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2 O zone Biomonitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.1 Visible Foliar Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.2 Use of Ethylenediurea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 3 E ffects of Ozone on Plant Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4 O zone Induced Yield Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5 C onclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 5 M itigation of Ozone Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 1 I ntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 2 O Mitigation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 3 2.1 Improving Agricultural Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 2.2 A dapting Crops to Ozone Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 6 C onclusions and Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 2 Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 3 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 About the Author Supriya Tiwari is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Botany at Banaras Hindu University, India. Her research focuses on the formation of ozone and its effects on plant productivity in India. She has also worked on the mechanisms of plants’ response under ozone stress which lead to yield reductions. Her evaluations of ozone crop injury and ozone-induced yield reductions have made significant con- tributions in the planning of sustainable agriculture strategies towards maintaining ozone-induced yield losses. Madhoolika Agrawal is a Professor in the Department of Botany at Banaras Hindu University, India. Her areas of specialization include air pollution impact assessment with emphasis on surface ozone monitoring and evaluation of ozone- induced crop yield losses. Her research findings include the quantification of ozone impacts on global food security. She has been focusing on screening ozone-r esistant cultivars, along with the development of a few strategies like the use of nutrient amendments and carbon dioxide fertilization for minimizing ozone injury in plants. ix Chapter 1 Ozone Concentrations in Troposphere: Historical and Current Perspectives Abstract The concentration of ground level ozone (O ) has registered an unpre- 3 dictably high increase in the last few decades. It has been observed that the back- ground O concentration has doubled since the nineteenth century with more 3 prominent effects in Northern hemisphere. Although the formation of O largely 3 depends upon the regional emission of O precursors, the increasing O concentra- 3 3 tions have acquired a global significance. With the implementation of air quality legislations, the anthropogenic emission of O precursors has declined in North 3 America and Europe but the problem still persists in Asia. The long lifetime of O 3 superimposed by its intercontinental transport from Asia play an important role increasing global background O concentration in North America and Europe. 3 Modeling studies have recognized South and East Asia as the major hotspots where O concentrations are expected to show maximum increase in near future. The pres- 3 ent chapter throws light on the historical background of O monitoring and dis- 3 cusses the present scenario of ground level O with emphasis on the recent trends in 3 different continental zones along with the seasonal and diurnal variations. Keywords Background ozone · Ozone precursors · Monitoring · Hotspots Contents 1 Introduction 2 2 Pre-historic Ozone Concentrations 3 3 Present Scenario of Ozone Concentrations 5 4 Recent Trends in Ozone Concentration Over North America 10 5 Recent Trends in Ozone Concentration Over Europe 11 6 Recent Trends in Ozone Concentration Over Asia 12 7 Seasonal and Diurnal Variations in Ozone Concentrations 17 8 Future Predictions in Ozone Concentrations 20 9 Conclusion 20 References 21 © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1 S. Tiwari, M. Agrawal, Tropospheric Ozone and its Impacts on Crop Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71873-6_1