Trauma, Post-Apocalyptic Science Fiction & the Post-Human 1 Journal Title: Wide Screen Vol. 3, No.1, June 2011 ISSN: 1757-3920 URL: http://widescreenjournal.org Published by Subaltern Media, 153 Sandringham Drive, Leeds LS17 8DQ, UK TRAUMA, POST-APOCALYPTIC SCIENCE FICTION & THE POST-HUMAN ANIRBAN KAPIL BAISHYA ______________________________________________________________________________ Abstract: This paper deals with the idea of the ―post-human‖ in cinematic science fiction and horror cinema through figures such as the zombie. Literally ―undead‖, such figures reveal a level of engagement with memories and possibilities of traumatic events at a social, cultural and political level. Hence, the deployment of such figures operates within specific historical and political junctures and cannot be read outside of specific spatial and temporal contexts. In this paper, I look at three films, Danny Boyle‘s 28 Days Later (2000), its sequel 28 Weeks Later (2007) directed by Juan Carlos Fresnadillo and Alfonso Cuarón‘s Children of Men (2006) which figure plotlines located in Britain. These recent films reveal a deep engagement with contemporary anxieties about terrorism, immigration and xenophobia. Through the deployment of horrific and spectacular imagery these films look at how the human body itself becomes the site of the political. Corporeal imagery in these films then becomes an allegory of both the ―body-politic‖ and the human body as the site of political control and resistance. The work of Michel Foucault, Giorgio Agamben and Hannah Arendt provides the basic theoretical frame through which I look at this angle of the ―biopolitical‖ that is evoked in these films through dystopic and spectacular imagery of the ―death‖ of the human and the production of the ―post- human‖ subject. ______________________________________________________________________________ ―As the archaeology of our thought easily shows, man is an invention of recent date. And one perhaps nearing its end.‖—Michel Foucaulti I In this paper I take Foucault‘s injunction from The Order of Things mentioned above in a slightly different direction. While Foucault talks about how ―man‖ will disappear as a category of knowledge, my paper explores a literal manifestation of the post-humanist idea. By employing Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Wide Screen 3.1 2 awesome technologies of death and destruction that can extinguish and obliterate human life on a massive scale in a matter of seconds, the threat of an actual post-human era has appeared as a distinct possibility in our global imaginary especially after 1945. No wonder then that the traumatic realization of this possible apocalyptic reality has been the base of countless imaginative works in film and fiction. In this paper I will explore dystopic imaginaries of the post-human in contemporary post-apocalyptic, science-fiction and horror cinema, and the attendant political problematics and anxieties these liminal ontological states raise in the contemporary era. Zombies, mutants and other techno-cultural monstrosities often raise spectres of a Frankensteinish nightmare where a ―new‖ species takes over human worlds in post- apocalyptic imaginaries. However, I claim that a specific genealogy of these ―nightmarish‖ imaginaries sustain themselves on a level of repressed memories accruing from the images and narratives of traumatic events in modern history, like the Holocaust and Hiroshima. The proliferation of images of human subjects who were literally reduced to the status of the living dead (as was evidenced from the images that circulated after inmates were released from the death camps), I claim, are central for any understanding of these ―nightmarish‖ imaginaries. Also drawing from Walter Benjamin, I will look at the idea of catastrophe as central to an understanding of trauma in this sense—a catastrophic event being one that destabilizes the way in which we see the world, and leads to an ―end‖ of the world as it is known and cognized. The catastrophe ruptures the continuum of time and liberates both positive (Benjamin‘s evaluation of the time of revolution) and negative imaginaries oriented towards futurity. Drawing from the work of Adam Lowenstein, I would like to argue that within the genre of science fiction, there is a similar negative catastrophic imagination at play—one which mobilizes memory and the historical archive to speak about trauma and catastrophe in an allegorical way. I will extend the idea of historical trauma to include not only trauma of ―past‖ events, but also traumatic events in the ―present‖ that become ―historical‖ via technological modes of representation. The idea of trauma and the post-apocalyptic imaginary then become more than mere fantasy and are raised to the level of historical allegory in the films that I examine. Here, I would like to mention Ishiro Honda‘s 1954 film Godzilla as a case of classic science-fiction/horror working as historical allegory. This film-text speaks about how the memory of a traumatic event is mobilized and allegorized in the ―shocking representation‖ of a catastrophic event—in this case, the monstrous and destructive threat of annihilation through Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Trauma, Post-Apocalyptic Science Fiction & the Post-Human 3 atomic warfare and the mutated, post-human identities that accrue from this catastrophic event. Honda‘s film manages to ―transfer onto Godzilla the role of the United States in order to symbolically re-enact a problematic United States-Japan relationship that includes atomic war, occupation, and thermo-nuclear tests‖ (Noriega, 1966: 61). But my prime focus is not on Godzilla. Rather, I will utilize insights from Noriega‘s reading of this film text to study three recent films—Danny Boyle‘s 28 Days Later (2000), its sequel 28 Weeks Later (2007) directed by Juan Carlos Fresnadillo and Alfonso Cuarón‘s Children of Men (2006). I would like to push the argument about trauma and allegory through these post-apocalyptic, science-fiction films by pointing out that these three films, all located in Britain, suggest resonances of post-colonial dilemmas, race politics and the threat of war. I will limit my analysis to three concepts—the figure of the ―living dead‖, the memory of the camps and the state of exception. I will suggest that these concepts work at the level of the allegorical— not merely in terms of evoking displaced meanings by means of reference, but also at the level of the Benjaminian notion of the optical unconscious which is central to the way in which film mobilizes historical allegory. Therefore, before going on to a discussion of the films, I will embark on a brief description of the relationship of allegory, ―shocking representation‖ and the ―optical unconscious‖ and see how these relate to the filmic evocation of horror and trauma with reference to displaced meanings. II In his introduction to the book Shocking Representation (2005) Adam Lowenstein argues that generic tropes of the terrifying, the disgusting and the corporeal refer to particular traumatic referents. Implicit in his argument, is the idea that the archiving of the tortured and mutilated bodies of victims in the form of images in the last century‘s greatest catastrophes—the Second World War, the Hiroshima bombing and the Vietnam War—has been concurrent with the rise of cinema as a mode of historical representation. These images become what Laura Marks in her book The Skin of the Film (2000) calls recollection-objects, which bear the traces of the (catastrophic) past. Lodged in our consciousness, these images begin to form what Walter Benjamin calls the ―optical unconscious‖.ii For Benjamin, the advent of technologies like photography brought the ―optical unconscious‖ into play more than ever before. Minute moments of time which otherwise do not leave any trace on our perceptual world can be captured Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Wide Screen 3.1 4 through the click of the photographic/cinematic apparatus. Consciousness, in the Freudian schema, represents those moments of experience which leave an imprint on memory and can be narrativized in time. But the perceptual system is subjected to myriad experiences which do not enter the continuum of conscious experience. These unperceived (or dimly perceived) experiences sink into our unconscious. As was his wont, Benjamin took this schema and fused it with a technological-materialist viewpoint. Technologies like the still or the film camera make it possible to capture minute experiences which otherwise remain like a play of shadows on our conscious visual apparatus. The huge proliferation of visual culture in modernity means our stock of these images has proliferated manifold.iii Post-apocalyptic horror and science fiction cinema taps into this optical unconsciousness to refer back to the horrors of catastrophic events, by evoking the images of war, violence and destruction and reproducing the tortured corporeality thereof by means of oblique reference. This method and moment of reference is what Lowenstein calls the ―allegorical moment‖. One can relate this to Susan Sontag‘s statement that ―Science fiction films are not about science. They are about disaster, which is one of the oldest subjects of art. In science fiction films, disaster is rarely viewed intensively; it is always extensive. It is a matter of quantity and ingenuity. If you will, it is a question of scale.‖ (1965: 44) I would like to argue that such imagination of disaster in post-apocalyptic science fiction/horror films does more than simply refer back to ‗past‘ horrors. Rather, as Lowenstein argues in a very Benjaminian sense, they ―blast open the continuum of history‖ (2005: 12) by means of ―shocking representation‖. Such representation allows these films to produce history in terms of ―time filled by the presence of the now [Jetztzeit]‖ by seizing ―hold of a memory as it flashes up at a moment of danger‖. (Benjamin, 1968: 257, 255). Therefore, the referent in such post-apocalyptic films need not exclusively be the past, but may also be the past conceived in terms of the present. In such films the allegorical moment‘s ―past‖ and ―present‖ become compressed in the ―immediate,‖ and this is made possible by modern technologies of representation such as photography, film and television which produce what ―really is an instant history‖ (Nowell-Smith, 1990: 161). In the three films that are my focus, the ―allegorical moment‖ thus works at two levels. First, they evoke the audience‘s optical unconscious by referring back, either consciously or unconsciously to Britain‘s colonial past and the related anxieties about the ‗other‘ that originates in this past. Second, these films also evoke an ―instant Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Trauma, Post-Apocalyptic Science Fiction & the Post-Human 5 history‖ through an imagination of disaster in the present, where, especially post-9/11, traumatic events become ‗historical‘ by their mass accessibility and proliferation in terms of televised and filmed images. As Kyle William Bishop quotes: Since the Second World War, for example, these key anxieties and horrors include ―the fear of foreign otherness and monstrous invasion,‖ ―the technological explosion,‖ ―the rise of feminism, gay liberation, and African-American civil rights,‖ and ―the heightened attack against Christian ideology and hierarchy as that which should ‗naturally‘ define values and ethics in culture. (2010: 26) Here the notion of history becomes extended from the constricted, positivist framework of a linear and organic span of time. Rather here, as Benjamin says, the ―past can be seized only as an image ... as it flashes up at a moment of danger‖ (1968: 255). ―Past‖ and ―present‖ therefore blur into each other in the production of historical meaning via hybrid temporal narratives. III Danny Boyle‘s 2002 film 28 Days Later imagines the destruction of contemporary Britain after misguided animal rights activists accidentally unleash the ―rage-virus‖ while trying to free chimpanzees at a biological research lab. The film actually begins with a montage of archival sequences of riot and violence from all over the world being played on a loop (including the public torture and murder of the last President of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Mohammad Najibullah by the Taliban in1996). It is revealed in a few moments that the images are actually being played on multiple television screens in the laboratory, and are hooked on in some way to a chimpanzee under examination. Thus, right at the beginning, a link is drawn between state power and violence on the one hand and corporeality on the other. The link of violence and state authority and its power of influence over human life features centrally in the Foucauldian notion of biopower—which essentially means the total regulation of the biological aspect of human life by means of political power (an instance would be regulations that seek to safeguard the health of the ―population‖ such as regulations against the entry of people suffering from AIDS in many countries). For Foucault if the juridico-sovereign model of power presupposed rule over subjects, biopower entailed the governance of a statistically enumerable population conceptualized as a collective biological set.iv An essential function of Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Wide Screen 3.1 6 the seat of political authority then becomes the governance over ―life‖ and by corollary the stalling of ―death‖ to maximize the potential of ―life‖. ―Life‖ and ―death‖ in this sense are important tropes in 28 Days Later where the event of an unimaginable catastrophe signals both the dislocation of biopower and the effort to reinstate it. They emerge as important tropes whereby the question of what is ―human‖ and what is not becomes the central focus of the struggle for biopower—in other words, the prevention of ―death‖ and its associated forms infiltrates the boundaries of ―life‖ creating a scission between what must live and what must die. In the film, the infiltration of the animal rights activists and their efforts to free the chimpanzees from this protected domain of ―life‖ leads to a series of infections resulting in the ―death‖ of the human species. We are only shown the first of these infections inside the lab, not how it proliferates. But we are led to assume in the following sequence that the normal state of being has been destabilized by catastrophe. This is catastrophe in the Benjaminian sense of the term— something that causes an ―end‖ of the world as it is cognized and experienced. In 28 Days Later we first experience the traumatic remembrance of this event through the eyes of its central protagonist Jim, played by Cillian Murphy. The manner in which Jim comes to encounter the effects of this event is crucial. It is revealed later that Jim had met with an accident which explains why he wakes up in a now-deserted hospital. Unaware of what has happened around him, Jim negotiates the space of the deserted hospital. One particular scene in the sequence speaks about the ―scale‖ of the disaster—while Jim moves around the hospital trying to figure out what exactly has happened, he comes across a telephone counter with all the receivers hanging. Jim tries to use them but they don‘t function anymore. Exasperated, he lets go of the receiver. Behind the swinging, non-functional telephone receivers shown through a low angle shot, is a Costa-Coffee (a popular chain of cafés) outlet. Effectively, this scene speaks of the ‗imagination‘ of a disaster wherein all normal, human communications have ceased and the structures around which daily life revolved have disintegrated. If Jim‘s initial shock in the hospital hinted at disaster, his foray outside into the city of London confirms it. The streets are devoid of human population and all activity has ceased. Several brass imitations of the Westminster Bridge and British flags lie strewn across the street as if symbolically signalling the ―death‖ of the London that Jim once knew. The solitary figure negotiating the desolate space of the city hints at the great underlying fear of this century and the last, the fear of total annihilation of the human race—a fear made manifest by the destructive, near-apocalyptic experience of the Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Trauma, Post-Apocalyptic Science Fiction & the Post-Human 7 Second World War whose memories have become ―cultural memories‖ encoded into man‘s ontological being by technological modernity and its corollary methods of archiving. As Kyle William Bishop quotes in his book American Zombie Gothic: The Rise and Fall (and Rise) of the Walking Dead in Popular Culture: Scenes depicting deserted metropolitan streets, abandoned human corpses, and gangs of lawless vigilantes have become more common than ever, appearing on the nightly news as often as on the movie screen. Because the aftereffects of war, terrorism, and natural disasters so closely resemble the scenarios depicted by zombie cinema, such images of death and destruction have all the more power to shock and terrify a population that has become otherwise jaded to more traditional horror films. (2010: 11) This leads us back to Sontag‘s idea that such films ―are not about science‖ but are ―about disaster‖. Disaster here does not merely mean the physical destruction of the world. It means catastrophe in the fullest Benjaminian sense of the term—a destabilization of the ontological and epistemological experience of the world as well. Yet, the fear is not only one of annihilation. It is also the fear of invasion by the ―other‖ and this is where the figure of the ―zombie‖ or the ―living dead‖ comes into the picture. The figure of the zombie is an allegorical one that has its roots in Haitian voodoo and its appropriation by cinema makes it ―a complex and relevant cultural artifact, a fusion of elements from the ―civilized‖ New World and mystical ancient Africa.v Indeed, it is a creature born of slavery, oppression, and capitalist hegemony and in that way a manifestation of collective unconscious fears and taboos.‖ (Bishop 2010: 37)vi The ―living dead‖ then becomes a trope whereby the discourse of race operates in subtle, but crucial ways. But the figure of the zombie or the living dead also functions at another, more explicitly political level and this is connected to the traumatic experience of the Holocaust. This is intricately connected to the question of sovereignty and what Giorgio Agamben calls the ―state of exception‖. The state of exception is an extreme situation where the law operates by being suspended (as in a military occupation within a democratic state—the AFSPA in the northeast and Kashmir in India are examples). If, as Foucault suggests through his notion of biopolitics that the function of the modern (nation) state is the regulation of all human life through political power, then the question of what is to be given the status of ―life‖ and what is designated to the category of the ―dead‖ also becomes a prerogative of the state. Thus, in effect, all modern states appropriate the ―state of exception‖ Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Wide Screen 3.1 8 whereby the biopolitical state emerges as the sovereign arbitrator that decides what is normal and by corollary makes decisions over life and death. Thus, modern, biopolitical states function by blurring the boundaries between the fundamentally lawless ―state of exception‖ and legitimate sovereign authority. Sovereignty, after all, is the right to decide on life and death. Biopower, which ostensibly makes a ―benevolent‖ claim to governance, can appropriate this older right of rule by tippling over to what Agamben, in Remnants of Auschwitz (1999), calls ―thanatopolitics‖ (83). As Agamben quotes in Homo Sacer ―When life and politics originally divided, and linked together by means of the no-man‘s-land of the state of exception that is inhabited by bare life— begin to become one, all life becomes sacred and all politics becomes the exception‖ (1998: 148). The figure of the ‗living dead‘ therefore represents a liminal state of being that is within the boundaries of the political state, but is produced as a species of ―bare life‖— human life reduced to a pure biological counter and nothing more. In Remnants of Auschwitz Agamben talks of the ―Muselmann‖ which was a term specifically applied to concentration camp inmates who were reduced to such a state of ―bare life‖. vii Quoting Wolfgang Sofsky, Agamben says that The Muselmann embodies the anthropological meaning of absolute power in an especially radical form [...] Like the pile of corpses, the Muselmanner document the total triumph of power over the human being‖. (1999: 47) The figure of the living dead therefore also recalls the figure of the Muselmanner.viii The images of the ―living dead‖ in concentration camps have become a cultural artefact in our times, functionally and firmly lodged in our ―optical consciousness‖ because of the archiving of the War years through photography and film. In certain senses therefore, the figure of the zombie marks a Freudian ―return of the repressed‖. Both of these discourses, the issue of race and the memory of the camps, inhere in the modern cinematic ―living dead‖. In 28 Days Later the figure of the living dead therefore functions in two ways. At one level it addresses the post-colonial anxiety about the ―other‖ and at another level it addresses the political anxiety about ―bare life‖ that emanates from the state of exception. Jim‘s first encounter with the ―living dead‖, the ―infected‖ as they are called in the film, happens right after the sequence where he is wandering around the streets of London. Jim enters a church where he sees a horde of ―living dead‖ but he doesn‘t know it yet. From afar, it looks like a pile of corpses and they look almost human. It is only when an infected priest begins to attack him that Jim realizes that he is not in ―human‖ company anymore. The very fact that the Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Trauma, Post-Apocalyptic Science Fiction & the Post-Human 9 ―living dead‖ here resemble the ―human‖ but is outside of its definition by fact of their reduction to ―bare life‖ is where the horror of 28 Days Later emanates. This can also be seen as an allegory of same post 9/11 anxieties about terrorism and the cultural other and the ―fear that anyone could be a suicide bomber or a hijacker‖ (and, I may add, a suspected perpetrator of bio-terror) which ―parallels a common trope of zombie films, in which healthy people are zombified by contact with other zombies and become killers.‖ (Bishop, 55) The notion of ―contact‖ has a two-fold resonance here. At one level it reveals the operations of the discourse of race in which the colonial ―other‖ becomes something to be seen or gazed at but not to be touched—the other becomes at once an object of fascination on the one hand and fear and repulsion on the other. In such films ―the terror comes from being turned into a zombie instead of being killed by one‖ (33) in much the same way that race marks out strict boundaries among the human and the sub- human. At the same time, the notion of contact is also connected to the notion of ―contagion‖ which may be racial in nature but might also refer to contemporary traumas about pandemic infections. The ―viral plague‖ as Bishop says is ―most easily a reference to AIDS, but it could just as well reference cholera, smallpox, anthrax, or the avian or swine flues. In fact, in an unsettling irony, England experienced a devastating outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease during the filming of 28 Days Later, resulting in the slaughter of millions of livestock.‖ (28) This is a case in which ―the allegorical moment‘s ―past‖ and ―present‖ become compressed in an ―immediate‖ wherein anxieties about pandemics have become fuelled equally by the proliferation of disease due to mass movements of human population and the proliferation of ‗news‘ about such pandemics which often leads to large scale panic—both being made possible modern advancements in technology. Jim‘s initial encounter with such ―living dead‖ is a moment of ―shocking representation‖ wherein the possibility of such apocalyptic contagion is made apparent and possible by inserting into the till-now-desolate landscape, a hitherto unconceivable threat. This is a moment of Jetztzeit—a moment ―filled by the presence of the now‖ in which the possibility of such an apocalyptic future is made possible by mobilizing the audience‘s optical unconscious, their ―memory as it flashes up at a moment of danger‖. By placing the human present and the post-human nightmare within the same frame, Boyle manages to create a sense of an apocalyptic possibility which is mediated by both past and contemporary knowledge of contagion, death and destruction. For example, as Bishop says: The scene in which Jim picks up stray pound notes off the empty streets of London was directly inspired by Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011 Wide Screen 3.1 10 journalist footage from the ―killing fields‖ of Cambodia during and after the reign of Pol Pot, and the street billboard displaying hundred of photos and notes seeking missing loved ones, which has such a direct tie to 9/11 now, was based on an actual street scene following a devastating earthquake in China. The abandoned city, overturned buses, and churches full of corpses were scenes all founded on existing moments of civil unrest and social collapse. (28) The imagination of disaster, therefore is not mere fantasy. By stepping out of the sphere of ―pure‖ horror to the realm of ―science-fiction‖ 28 Days Later makes us imagine that such a thing could happen. At the same time, by utilizing the optical unconscious and referring to past events by means of optical allegory, post-apocalyptic films such as 28 Days Later drive home a point about the persistence of such horrific memories in the collective imagination. The imagination at play here is not merely an imagination of catastrophe, but a ‗traumatic imagination‘ in which there is ―a kind of double-telling, the oscillation between a crisis of death and the correlative crisis of life: between the story of the unbearable nature of an event and the story of the unbearable nature of its survival‖ (Caruth, 1996: 7). The question of the state of exception becomes most explicit in 28 Days Later with the ―military episode‖. Jim, along with his co-survivors Selena (Naomie Harris), Frank (Brendan Gleeson) and his daughter Hannah (Megan Burns) responds to a recorded military broadcast asking any survivors to come to a safe haven in Manchester, where ostensibly a cure for the infection has been found. After a series of near-escapes, the quartet reaches Manchester where they are disappointed by a seemingly deserted outpost. Frank becomes infected here, by a stray drop of infected blood which falls on him after he kicks a post. He is however, shot by troops before he can do any harm. However it is at this point that the other, more potent threat in 28 Days Later reveals itself—the threat of the ―state of exception‖ and totalitarianism which is embodied in the figure of the army contingent led by Major Henry West (Christopher Eccleston). The filmic movement from the mise-en-scene of the desolate, devastated city, to the that of the army camp is visually coded by markers of the ―state of exception‖— guns, gasmasks, floodlights, barricades and barbwire, which have become a part of the collective ―optical unconscious‖ after the traumatic experience of the Second World War. Here, I find Hannah Arendt‘s work particularly illuminating in relation to the modalities in which biopolitical power operates through modalities of terror in the state of exception. In The Origins of Totalitarianism, Arendt says that ―Terror is lawfulness, if the law is the law of movement of some superhuman Wide Screen, Vol 3, No.1. ISSN: 1757-3920 Published by Subaltern Media, 2011