THE TRAINING MANUAL FOR FOOD SAFETY REGULATORS WHO ARE INVOLVED IN IMPLEMENTING FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS ACT 2006 ACROSS THE COUNTRY FOODS SAFETY & STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF INDIA (MINISTRY OF HEALTH & FAMILY WELFARE) FDA BHAVAN, KOTLA ROAD, NEW DELHI – 110 002 Website: www.fssai.gov.in TRAINING MANUAL FOR FOOD SAFETY REGULATORS Vol I – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND FOOD PROCESSING 2010 INDEX TRAINING MANUAL FOR FOOD SAFETY OFFICERS Sr Subject Topics Page No No 1 INTRODUCTION TO  INTRODUCTION TO FOOD FOOD – ITS  Carbohydrates, Protein, fat, Fibre, Vitamins, Minerals, ME etc .  Effect of food processing on food nutrition. NUTRITIONAL,  Basics of Food safety TECHNOLOGICAL  Food Contaminants (Microbial, Chemical, Physical) AND SAFETY ASPECTS  Food Adulteration (Common adulterants, simple tests for detection of adulteration)  Food Additives (Classification, functional role, safety issues )  Food Packaging & labelling (Packaging types, understanding labelling rules & 2 to 100 Regulations, Nutritional labelling, labelling requirements for pre-packaged food as per CODEX)  INTRODUCTION OF FOOD PROCESSING AND TECHNOLOGY  F&VP, Milk, Meat, Oil, grain milling, tea-Coffee, Spices & condiments processing.  Food processing techniques (Minimal processing Technologies, Photochemical processes, Pulsed electric field, Hurdle Technology )  Food Preservation Techniques (Pickling, drying, smoking, curing, caning, bottling, Jellying, modified atmosphere, pasteurization etc. ) 2 FOOD SAFETY – A  Codex Alimentarius Commission (CODEX)  Introduction GLOBAL  Standards, codes of practice, guidelines and recommendations PERSPECTIVE  Applying Codex standards  Codex India – Role of Codex Contact point, National Codex contact point 101 to 107 (NCCP)  Core functions of NCCP-India  National Codex Committee of India – ToR, Functions, Shadow Committees etc. 3 EMERGING ISSUES  Organic food IN FOOD  Identifying Organic foods, Advantages, The Organic Certification Process, Organic Food labelling PROCESSING  GM food  Why are GM food produced, Main issues of concern for Human Health, How are GM Food regulated Internationally, Regulation in India.  Role of WHO to improve evaluation of GM food  Benefits & Controversies  Irradiated Food  How is food Irradiated, Sources of radiation used.  Potential uses of Food Irradiation. 108 to 129  Labelling of Irradiated Food.  Freeze dried food  Definition, Principle of Freeze - drying, Process  The Benefits of Freeze - Drying  Functional Foods & Nutraceuticals  Functional foods from plant sources, anima l sources  Nutraceuticals, dietary supplements, Regulation.  Nano-tech in food processing  What is Nanotechnology, use in food products and processing  Food fortification & Modification 1 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD Food is one of the basic needs of the human being. It is required for the normal functioning of the body parts and for a healthy growth. Food is any substance, composed of carbohydrates, water, fats and/or proteins, that is either eaten or drunk by any animal, including humans, for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or another kingdom such as fungus.On the other hand , Food science is a study concerned with all technical aspects of food, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption. It is considered one of the life sciences, and is usually considered distinct from the field of nutrition. Food science is a highly interdisciplinary applied science. It incorporates concepts from many different fields including microbiology, chemical engineering, biochemistry, and many others.Some of the subdisciplines of food science include:  Food processing - the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry  Food safety - the causes, prevention and communication dealing with foodborne illness  Food microbiology - the positive and negative interactions between micro- organisms and foods  Food preservation - the causes and prevention of quality degradation  Food engineering - the industrial processes used to manufacture food  Product development - the invention of new food products  Sensory analysis - the study of how food is perceived by the consumer's senses  Food chemistry - the molecular composition of food and the involvement of these molecules in chemical reactions  Food packaging - the study of how packaging is used to preserve food after it has been processed and contain it through distribution  Food technology - the technological aspects of food  Food physics - the physical aspects of foods (such as viscosity, creaminess, and texture) BASIC COMPOSITION OF FOOD Our body requires carbohydrates, proteins, fats, enzymes, vitamins and minerals for a healthy growth. However, our body cannot produce all these nutrients. Hence, food is the only source to obtain these nutrients in an adequate quantity. If we don‘t get these nutrients in sufficient amount, then we may suffer from a number of health problems. So a balanced diet is always recommended which is defined as a diet containing carbohydrate, protein, fat, dietary fibres, vitamin & minerals in right proportion. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats supply 90% of the dry weight of the diet and 100% of 2 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD - ITS NUTRITIONAL, TECHNOLOGICAL AND SAFETY ASPECTS its energy. All three provide energy (measured in calories), but the amount of energy in 1 gram differs: 4 calories in a gram of carbohydrate or protein and 9 calories in a gram of fat. These nutrients also differ in how quickly they supply energy. Carbohydrates are the quickest, and fats are the slowest. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are digested in the intestine, where they are broken down into their basic units: carbohydrates into sugars, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The body uses these basic units to build substances it needs for growth, maintenance, and activity (including other carbohydrates, proteins, and fats). WATER IN DIET Water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen. It is the basis for the fluids of the body. Function Water makes up more than two-thirds of the weight of the human body. Without water, humans would die in a few days. All the cells and organs need water to function. Water serves as a lubricant and is the basis of saliva and the fluids surrounding the joints. Water regulates the body temperature through perspiration. It also helps prevent and alleviate constipation by moving food through the intestinal tract. Food Sources Some of the water in our body is obtained through foods we eat and some is the byproduct of metabolism. But drinking water is our main, and best, source of water. We also obtain water through liquid foods and beverages, such as soup, milk, and juices. Alcoholic beverages and beverages containing caffeine (such as coffee, tea, and colas) are not the best choices because they have a diuretic (water-excreting) effect. Side Effects If adequate water is not consumed on a daily basis the body fluids will be out of balance, causing dehydration. When dehydration is severe, it can be life-threatening. Recommendations Six to eight 8-ounce glasses of water are generally recommended on a daily basis. CARBOHYDRATES A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the general formula Cm(H2O)n, that is, consisting only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groupings: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living things. Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods) Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed by many cells they are often converted to more space efficient forms, often polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. Sucrose, 3 also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and D-fructose (right). Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. Sucrose is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. Depending on the size of the molecule, carbohydrates may be simple or complex.  Simple carbohydrates: Various forms of sugar, such as glucose and sucrose (table sugar), are simple carbohydrates. They are small molecules, so they can be broken down and absorbed by the body quickly and are the quickest source of energy. They quickly increase the level of blood glucose (blood sugar). Fruits, dairy products, honey, and maple syrup contain large amounts of simple carbohydrates, which provide the sweet taste in most candies and cakes.  Complex carbohydrates: These carbohydrates are composed of long strings of simple carbohydrates. Because complex carbohydrates are larger molecules than simple carbohydrates, they must be broken down into simple carbohydrates before they can be absorbed. Thus, they tend to provide energy to the body more slowly than simple carbohydrates but still more quickly than protein or fat. Because they are digested more slowly than simple carbohydrates, they are less likely to be converted to fat. They also increase blood sugar levels more slowly and to lower levels than simple carbohydrates but for a longer time. Complex carbohydrates include starches and fibers, which occur in wheat products (such as breads and pastas), other grains (such as rye and corn), beans, and root vegetables (such as potatoes). Carbohydrates may be refined or unrefined. Refined means that the food is highly processed. The fiber and bran, as well as many of the vitamins and minerals they contain, have been stripped away. Thus, the body processes these carbohydrates quickly, and they provide little nutrition although they contain about the same number of calories. Refined products are often enriched, meaning vitamins and minerals have been added back to increase their nutritional value. A diet high in simple or refined carbohydrates tends to increase the risk of obesity and diabetes. If people consume more carbohydrates than they need at the time, the body stores some of these carbohydrates within cells (as glycogen) and converts the rest to fat. Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that the body can easily and rapidly convert to energy. Glycogen is stored in the liver and the muscles. Muscles use glycogen for energy during periods of intense exercise. The amount of carbohydrates stored as glycogen can provide almost a day's worth of calories. A few other body tissues store carbohydrates as complex carbohydrates that cannot be used to provide energy. Most authorities recommend that about 50 to 55% of total daily calories should consist of carbohydrates. Glycemic Index: The glycemic index of a carbohydrate represents how quickly its consumption increases blood sugar levels. Values range from 1 (the slowest) to 100 (the fastest, the index of pure glucose). However, how quickly the level actually increases also depends on what other foods are ingested at the same time and other factors. The glycemic index tends to be lower for complex carbohydrates than for simple carbohydrates, but there are exceptions. For example, fructose (the sugar in fruits) has little effect on blood sugar. 4 DIETARY FIBER Introduction Dietary fiber (fibre), sometimes called roughage, is the indigestible portion of plant foods having two main components — soluble (prebiotic, viscous) fiber that is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts, and insoluble fiber that is metabolically inert, absorbing water throughout the digestive system and easing defecation. It acts by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Food sources of dietary fiber are often divided according to whether they provide (predominantly) soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees according to the plant's characteristics. Sources of fiber Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high fiber concentrations are generally the most practical source.Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly. Or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:  legumes (peas, soybeans, and other beans)  oats, rye, chia, and barley  some fruits and fruit juices (including plums, berries, bananas, and the insides of apples and pears)  certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots,  root vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, and onions (skins of these vegetables are sources of insoluble fiber)  psyllium seed husk (a mucilage soluble fiber). Sources of insoluble fiber include:  whole grain foods  wheat and corn bran  nuts and seeds  potato skins  flax seed  lignans  vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini (courgette), celery, and nopal  some fruits including avocado, and bananas  the skins of some fruits, including tomatoes Mechanism The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber binds to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood. Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, 5 once fermented in the colon, produces short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide- ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Benefits of fiber intake Research has shown that fiber may benefit health in several different ways. Dietary fiber functions & benefits Type of fibre Functions Benefits Both soluble and Adds bulk to your diet, May reduce appetite insoluble fibre making you feel full faster Soluble fibre only Attracts water and turns to Lowers variance in blood sugar levels gel during digestion, trapping carbohydrates and slowing absorption of glucose Soluble fibre only Lowers total and LDL Reduces risk of heart disease cholesterol Soluble fibre only Regulates blood sugar May reduce onset risk or symptoms of metabolic syndrome and diabetes Insoluble fibre only Speeds the passage of foods Facilitates regularity through the digestive system Insoluble fibre only Adds bulk to the stool Alleviates constipation Soluble fibre only Balances intestinal pH and May reduce risk of colorectal cancer stimulates intestinal fermentation production of short-chain fatty acids Fiber does not bind to minerals and vitamins and therefore does not restrict their absorption, but rather evidence exists that fermentable fiber sources improve absorption of minerals, especially calcium. Some plant foods can reduce the absorption of minerals and vitamins like calcium, zinc, vitamin C, and magnesium, but this is caused by the presence of phytate (which is also thought to have important health benefits), not by fiber. Guidelines on fiber intake Authorities generally recommend that about 30 grams of fiber be consumed daily. The average amount of fiber consumed daily is usually less because people tend to eat products made with highly refined wheat flour and do not eat many fruits and vegetables. Meat and dairy foods do not contain fiber. An average serving of fruit, a vegetable, or cereal contains 2 to 4 grams of fiber and should be the part of the diet. FATS Introduction Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room 6 temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances. The word "oil" is used for any substance that does not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as petroleum (or crude oil) and heating oil, regardless of its chemical structure. Examples of edible animal fats are lard (pig fat), fish oil, and butter or ghee. They are obtained from fats in the milk, meat and under the skin of the animal. Examples of edible plant fats are peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be derived from the above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Types of fats in food  Unsaturated fat o Monounsaturated fat o Polyunsaturated fat o Trans fat o Cis fat o Omega fatty acids:  ω−3  ω−6  ω−9  Saturated fat Interesterified fat Importance for living organisms  Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement.  Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function.  Fats also serve as energy stores for the body, containing about 37.8 kilojoules (9 calories) per gram of fat. They are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy.  Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic—reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.  While it is nearly impossible to remove fat completely from the diet, it would be unhealthy to do so. Some fatty acids are essential nutrients, meaning that they can't be produced in the body from other compounds and need to be consumed in small amounts. All other fats required by the body are non-essential and can be produced in the body from other compounds. Essential fatty acids Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism (generally all references are to humans) from other components by any known chemical pathways, and therefore must be obtained from the diet. The term refers to fatty acids involved in biological processes, and not those which may just play a role as fuel. There are two families of EFAs: ω-3 (or omega-3 or n−3) and ω-6 (omega-6, n−6). Fats from each of these families are essential, as the body can convert one omega-3 to another omega- 7 3, for example, but cannot create an omega-3 from omega-6 or saturated fats. They were originally designated as Vitamin F when they were discovered as essential nutrients in 1923. In 1930, work by Burr, Burr and Miller showed that they are better classified with the fats than with the vitamins. Nomenclature and terminology Fatty acids are straight chain hydrocarbons possessing a carboxyl (COOH) group at one end. The carbon next to the carboxylate is known as α, the next carbon β, and so forth. Since biological fatty acids can be of different lengths, the last position is labelled as a "ω", the last letter in the Greek alphabet. Since the physiological properties of unsaturated fatty acids largely depend on the position of the first unsaturation relative to the end position and not the carboxylate, the position is signified by (ω minus n). For example, the term ω-3 signifies that the first double bond exists as the third carbon-carbon bond from the terminal CH3 end (ω) of the carbon chain. The number of carbons and the number of double bonds is also listed. ω-3 18:4 (stearidonic acid) or 18:4 ω-3 or 18:4 n−3 indicates an 18- carbon chain with 4 double bonds, and with the first double bond in the third position from the CH3 end. Double bonds are cis and separated by a single methylene (CH2) group unless otherwise noted. Examples The essential fatty acids start with the short chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (SC- PUFA):  ω-3 fatty acids: o α-Linolenic acid or ALA (18:3)  ω-6 fatty acids: o Linoleic acid or LA (18:2) These two fatty acids cannot be synthesised by humans, as humans lack the desaturase enzymes required for their production. They form the starting point for the creation of longer and more desaturated fatty acids, which are also referred to as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA):  ω-3 fatty acids: o eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA (20:5) o docosahexaenoic acid or DHA (22:6)  ω-6 fatty acids: o gamma-linolenic acid or GLA (18:3) o dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid or DGLA (20:3) o arachidonic acid or AA (20:4) ω-9 fatty acids are not essential in humans, because humans generally possess all the enzymes required for their synthesis. Essentiality Human metabolism requires both ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids. To some extent, any ω-3 and any ω-6 can relieve the worst symptoms of fatty acid deficiency. Particular fatty acids are still needed at critical life stages (e.g. lactation) and in some disease states. The human body can make some long-chain PUFA (arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA) from lineolate or lineolinate. Traditionally speaking the LC-PUFA are not essential. Because the LC-PUFA are sometimes required, they may be considered "conditionally essential", or not essential to healthy adults. 8 A deficiency of essential fatty acids results in scaly dermatitis, hair loss, and poor wound healing. Food sources Almost all the polyunsaturated fat in the human diet is from EFA. Some of the food sources of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids are fish and shellfish, flaxseed (linseed), hemp oil, soya oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables, and walnuts. Essential fatty acids play a part in many metabolic processes, and there is evidence to suggest that low levels of essential fatty acids, or the wrong balance of types among the essential fatty acids, may be a factor in a number of illnesses, including osteoporosis. Plant sources of ω-3 contain neither eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) nor docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The human body can (and in case of a purely vegetarian diet often must, unless certain algae or supplements derived from them are consumed) convert α-linolenic acid (ALA) to EPA and subsequently DHA. This however requires more metabolic work, which is thought to be the reason that the absorption of essential fatty acids is much greater from animal rather than plant sources. Human health Almost all the polyunsaturated fats in the human diet are EFAs. Essential fatty acids play an important role in the life and death of cardiac cells. Trans fat Trans fat is the common name for unsaturated fat with trans-isomer fatty acid(s). Trans fats may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated but never saturated. Unsaturated fat is a fat molecule containing one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms. Since the carbons are double-bonded to each other, there are fewer bonds connected to hydrogen, so there are fewer hydrogen atoms, hence "unsaturated". Cis and trans are terms that refer to the arrangement of chains of carbon atoms across the double bond. In the cis arrangement, the chains are on the same side of the double bond, resulting in a kink. In the trans arrangement, the chains are on opposite sides of the double bond, and the chain is straight. The process of hydrogenation adds hydrogen atoms to cis-unsaturated fats, eliminating a double bond and making them more saturated. These saturated fats have a higher melting point, which makes them attractive for baking and extends shelf-life. However, the process frequently has a side effect that turns some cis-isomers into trans-unsaturated fats instead of hydrogenating them completely. There is another class of trans fats, vaccenic acid, which occurs naturally in trace amounts in meat and dairy products from ruminants. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, and they do not promote good health. The consumption of trans fats increases the risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of "bad" LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of "good" HDL cholesterol. Health authorities worldwide recommend that consumption of trans fat be reduced to trace amounts. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils. 9