Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND CONCEPTUALIZATION. HOW TO BETTER UNDERSTAND AND USE BRAND AMBASSADORS IN COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND EXPERIENTIAL APPROACHES UDC 338.486 Review Pablo Brice de Diesbach Received 30 June 2011 Revised 17 July 2011 11 August 2011 Abstract The purpose – We propose to capitalize on recent research on tourism marketing, destination choice, but also and mainly on conceptual reflexions and research on emotional and symbolical brand relationship . We try to understand how destinations could communicate, using destination ambassadors; in order to better attract travellers. Methodology – this is a theoretical article presenting key concepts and their relevance to tourism marketing. We present the key concepts and analyse cases or real-life examples of destination ambassadors uses, trying to show the relevance of the described concepts. We use research key concepts and results in Affective marketing, Environmental psychology, and Experiential marketing, exploring issues of persuasion by three persuasion routes through which ambasadors can impact consumer choices. Approach – This article is a case-based theoretical reflection, aimed at deepening our level of understanding of how and why ambassadors could matter in tourism destination and branding in general. We start with real-life examples, and show in several cases what does not work and why, suggesting better professional practices based on theory. Findings – We illustrate the concept of destination ambassadors with some real examples. We show that the concept of brand ambassador and destination ambassador are often understood in a very limited approach with confusion, and mot much effects because they only rely on “strike power”, famousness. We propose improvements, suggesting three persuasion routes: cognitive, affective and symbolical. We define “symbols” in branding. We find out that Affective and Symbolical marketing research could dramatically improve our understanding and good use of ambassadors in touristical destination and marketing in general. We also propose three key definitions in tourism marketing. We propose a reflection on how the Deep metaphors conceptualized by Zaltman, actually relate to Experiential marketing and do make sens in destination branding; we show that ambassadors could largely contribute to it, using such theoretical framework. In a last section, we take a number of examples and formulate recommendations to practicioners, specific to different sorts of destinations such as spas, ski resorts, hotels, etc. We also suggest to enlarge our vision of “marketing” to creating value in a more sustainable, ecological manner. It encapsulates the idea of creating value for all stakeholders, relying all the old concept of Service Profit Chain in services marketing, and on recent research in Tourism marketing. We suggest to think the option of co-branding for both destinations and ambassadors, especially via Online Social Media. The originality of the research – It consists of two main points. First, although it seems rules/breaking, we simply stick to the modern definition of marketing – marketing seen as a relationship construction process – and to research contributions, in proposing to better 229 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... understand how ambassadors could be better used for creating value for targeted consumers, in a consistent manner with the destination positioning. We seem to be very provocative in questioning the practices of practicioners using mainly celebrities; but we rather want to enhance more profound practices and more efficiency in business. We also remind that Marketing is not to be seen as a Communication or Manipulation process, but as a value delivery process, and propose how ambassadors could contribute to it. Second, we draw attention on some key concepts largely ignored in Experiential marketing, and on the importance of more thought. The principle of parcimony also asks us to communicate in a less superficial manner, and in a more efficient way. In the context of Ambassadors in tourism destination, that means we might need to think and understand more, use less Celebrity effects, and more, ambassadors consistent with brand emotional and symbolical positioning. Those can be celebrities, or non famous humans, virtual agents, animals or other non human objects. Keywords Experiential marketing, Destination, Ambassador, Affect, Symbol THE KEY CONCEPTS OF OUR RESEARCH This article consists of a conceptual improvement proposition in order to improve tourism marketing efficiency. We therefore start clarifying some of the key concepts we use here. The concept of brand The literature gives many definitions of a “brand” (see the seminal works by Aaker 1991, 1995, 2000). We could also refer to e.g. Kapferer (1992; 1999; 2001; 2004) and Keller (1993; 1998; 2001; 2003). One example of definition that we keep here follows, from Aaker (1991, 7): “a distinguishable name or symbol (such as logo, trademark or package design) intended to identify the goods or services of either one seller or a group of sellers, and to differentiate those goods or services from those competitors”. The definition o the AMA insists on the multidimensionality and the non tangible aspects of its components. We will find them extensively evoked in that paper, in the affective and symbolical meaning of a brand. Destination as a brand A touristic destination proposes a bunch of products and services to be consumed or experienced in a given set. A destination can be considered as extremely similar to a brand and can be marketed as a brand per se: Kerr (2006, 277) proposes to define a destination brand as follows: “[. . .] name, symbol, logo, word or other graphic that both identifies and differentiates the destination; furthermore it conveys the promise of a memorable travel experience that is uniquely associated with the destination; it also serves to consolidate and reinforce the recollection of pleasurable memories of destination experience.” Authors traditionally limit such definition to a place which defines a given geographical area and is a city, region, country, such as St Tropez, Paris, Mykonos, etc. We extend this definition to components of available services in such place. We include in this concept of Destination brand, places of experience or service delivery such as a hotel or a restaurant per se, a casino, and even a shopping mall, when the nature and intensity of the delivered experience can become sufficiently 230 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... memorable per se in order to be remembered (and positively commented in word of mouth) as a consumption experience per se. The interest of destination branding lies in communicating on the destination and its consumption facets or components, differentiating itself from competing destination. We can list 6 advantages of destination branding: helping reducing the choice, reducing the uncertainty and other problematic impacts of intangibility, conveying consistence across outlets and over time, reducing perceived risks in decision making, facilitating segmentation, and motivating and communicating the place image also towards stakeholders such as employees. As Moinat and Diesbach (2009) puts it: “The image of a specific place represents the simplification of large amounts of information and perceptions of that place. Place image is the process of taking a large quantity of data about a city or country and turning it into a small set of ideas and beliefs”. In our intent of understanding how the image of a pace is constructed, we study here the role of a destination ambassador. The concept of ambassador In a classical approach and if we refer to several dictionaries, the concept of ambassador comes mainly from the middle age. Ambassadors and spies are intrinsically linked from the beginning of the history of diplomacy and in Europe. The first who had regular ambassadors in all important European, oriental and sometimes Asian courts, where the Venetians. We find since the Renaissance documents mentioning the word “ambassade”, but not as a place where the ambassadors lives and work but rather as a group of people, sent for a specific mission of negotiation of to deliver a specific request. In all historical mentions an ambassador corresponds to the modern meaning, that is a person who is here to represent, and defend, the interests of a specific sovereign or state, in a different place or state. We believe that it quite well corresponds to the meaning it takes in marketing, where the Brand ambassador classically refers to a person who is included in prints, or in videos, and the presence of whom is expected to support the promotion of a product-service-destination, etc. we now analyse examples of destination ambassadors. CONCEPT AND EXAMPLES, OF DESTINATION AMBASSADORS Traditionally we associate the word “brand/destination ambassador” to a famous person who, though her official function (a diplomat) or because she is paid for that, promotes a brand. We all know George Clooney for NESPRESSO and Johnny Halliday for OPTIC 2000. Follow some examples of destination ambassadors taken from the professional literature. A film called BORAT was broadcasted in Nov. 2006 in the USA an UK, about Kazakhstan, and perceived as extremely insulting and humiliating by this state. In reaction, Kazakh Pdt Nazarbayev turned out to act as a firm ambassador of business investments and tourism to his country: his behavior and declarations during his official trip to Washington which took place a few month later, was actually largely impacted by his role as a destination ambassador (Wallis 2007). 231 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... We observe all along the 19th century a remarkable boom in water therapy. Urquía (1992), quoted in Lorrinaga (2005), explains this boom thanks to 3 main drivers: - A breakthrough in chemical and medical investigation, - The lack of effective curative practices for a number of chronic diseases, - A fashion imposed by aristocracy. We believe he forgets two main points: that such fashion is more and more imposed by a growing non aristocratic, industrial elite (first) but effectively poorly represented in Spain; and a growing interest for diseases which took more and more importance, due to the Industrial revolution, in which important physical loads and threatening atmospheric working or life conditions, made arthritis and respiratory system illness become much more serious issues than ever. The author has personally been working in the CHAINE THERMALE DU SOLEIL in France, and could know quite well the surprising effects of medical spas on such illness. San Sebastian in Spain, Biarritz in France, and Bath (even though it had been running spas for 2000 years) in the UK, then became extremely praised medical and wellness spa destinations. To come back to our topics, in such context there was no real “ambassador-related” touristic promotion. Or rather, there were destination ambassadors - as seen below - but they were not recruited by the spa operators, nor by the tourism offices which did not exist at the time. Nevertheless, the places to which Imperatrice Victoria, Emperor Napoleon III and his wife Countess of Montijo, the Duke of Angouleme, the Prince of Savoy, would go to “prendre les bains”, became much praised destinations for the new as well as for the old elites. Destination ambassadors therefore actually existed; but they were not paid and would have then not needed being paid for that - their descendants would certainly be most happy to play such role for money nowadays…but they are not asked to do so nowadays! Is it because they are not famous any more? We don’t believe this is the reason. We rather think a reason why is because they do not serve as much as social models than two centuries ago: their symbolic importance has declined and they are therefore not often recruited as ambassadors. In the example of the declarations and offers to become destination ambassadors for Kashmir by minister Omar Abdullah (Tribune Business News 2009), we see there is a very poor conception and understanding of a destination ambassador role and persuasion modalities. He offers anyone to be ambassadors, people are offered to be so openly, they are not instructed to say something in particular, in a particular way, are not motivated or rewarded: it then might work, but by chance only. In another press article (Marketing 2003) the author reminds us the poor forecasts for Toronto touristical summer season that year of 2003. He analyzes the different measures taken, and concludes recommending that all Torontonians should become “brand ambassadors” for Toronto, inviting friends and relatives to visit the city this Summer. We understand that this is, again, a limited view of the concept of a “ambassador”: “please just talk around”. 232 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... The state of Orissa in India seems to have some difficulty to find a touristical destination “positioning”: their website mirrors this, with a homepage (http://orissa- tourism.com/) that looks like a messy catalog of too many things - at first sight at least. They tried to use Nandit Das as a destination ambassador in 2005, an award-winning Indian film actress and director, because she was a very famous actress in India. Here a major issue is to be raised: she is, and was famous; but do the values she expresses as a character, or the lifestyle and values she represents by the kind of films she played in, match with some clear positioning statement for the state of Orissa? We surfed on Orissa state and on Nandita Das’ websites. Nothing is very clear about either “personnalities” (actress and destination) and we believe that this is an example of a rather “poor” but common, approach of the concept of anbassador, that is: the assumption that “famous” should = “success in affiliating people”. She is used in the limited traditional manner: “being famous is enough”. We believe it does not work so easily, and by the way, after 2005 we find no evidence at all about some continuation in such collaboration. The example depicted in the Article in the New Haven Business Times (2001) is much more interesting. Senator of Connecticut Mrs Rowland, and her husband, Governor Rowland, are depicted as the ambassadors of Connecticut as a touristic destination for Newyorkers. Such campaign was launched in 2001 upon request of the Connecticut Tourism Council and the Department of Economic & Community Development, Office of Tourism. The ads consisted of radio commercials, 4 television spots, an extensive prints and radio campaign. In their participation, the Rowland present and promote various landscapes and activities that boomer couples and families can enjoy in Connecticut. In such example, we believe the Brand ambassadors for Connecticut use cognitive and affective routes mainly: the cognitive route because they actually are from this state, they know it and can describe it detailfully, delivering data; the affective route via two facets that we detail hereafter. As to the cognitive persuasion route, the Rowland being important personnalities from Connecticut, they are perceived as relevant speakers. They are also seen as expert as they can desribe the destination, its facilities, benefits, etc. Perceived expertise and relevance or congruence with the destination that they promote, are important moderators of the credibility of the delivered message, as the facts and arguments deployed will be perceived as more plausible. Of course a bias exists: they are also perceived as biased speakers as they have an interest in convincing us. There will then be a trade-off between how subjects believe the ambassadors are biased and how much – if one believes in their ethics and honnesty - congruence and relevance will reinforce their persuasion power. As to the affective persuasion route, as Senator and Governor, they represent power and authority. When I receive a recommandation from such destination ambassadors, if such VIPs talk to me in an ad, it is likely that the importance of the speaker, gives to me (the message receiver) a feeling of (self) importance, feeling like: “wow, the ambassador i talking to me! I am a quite important guy too!”). That is, in a lenguage of psychology, a feeling of dominance. According to findings in environmental psychology – see hereafter, such feeling reinforces the credibility of the message. 233 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... If, aditionally, the Rowland are either handsome, agreable, and/or have a convincing body lenguage (in particular if they are good-looking and-or smile), another facet of affective persuasión will be likely to operate and again reinforce the speakers’ credibility – this, whatever be the righteousness of what they say. Such affective cue effects are well described in e.g. Burgoon (1978), Burgoon & al. (1990). Such ambassadors are therefore relevant, for several important components of cognitive and affective persuasion routes. An article in the Tribune Business News (2008) comments the 40 years of 'Virginia is for Lovers'. The State of Virginia seems to always have been a touristical desination expressing authenticity, relationsghip to nature and to a down-on-earth way of life. A slogan was launched in 1969, raising some eyebrows till a real, strong acceptability showed-up. It was officially adopted and even broadcasted by the very Governor Linwood Holton. It is being renewed and reexpressed and enriched. : "We are bringing 'Virginia is for Lovers' back to life," said Alisa Bailey, president of the Virginia Tourism Corp. (…)"It's one of the most recognized tourism slogans in the world, or slogans of any kind in the world, It's got enormous brand equity and marketing power”. Is there behind this an axis for a positioning statement? We feel, with what Kaine comments in the article that, beyond love of the beloved person, the positioning is related to an expression of a quest for real and authentic experience and feelings: towards a beloved person as well as towars family and nature. In other words, an affective and symbolical positioning. Does this hold for a set of value that a “Brand” car adopt? Certainly. Can that be expressed by an “ambassador”? Certainly yes: we would well imagine potos of landscape scenaries, of family gatherings (just retake a number of the potos used by RALPH LAUREN in their catalog for years: not the fashion-like but the ones showing Americans in a cabane in the far west, around a fireplace) etc. Beyond the fact such photos should be pretty, they would have to precisely express the strength and authenticity of love of others and nature, and could (without being a specific, famous, person such as looney or Tigerwoods) be a very efficient ambassador for such touristic destination. Such ambassador would hold a symbolic function – see further on in the article. In their analysis of the most valued and accepted images of promotion of, and expression of the value delivered by a sky resort, Frochot & Kreziak (2008) find out interesting results via focus groups with real consumers. The image of an old church in the mountain is the most preferred image. It probably is an aesthetically and emotionally loaded image which may seduce for the beauty of it. But the comments rather show that it is praised because it expresses authenticity, calm, nature. That is, if such images of a church were used as a destination ambassador we would clearly understand that it is not the fact the “ambassador” is famous (vs using George Clooney for instance), nor the fact it is particularly pretty, that might matter. It is rather the fact that such image indirectly expresses “something” that makes senses, and creates value for consumers. We will see that this can be called a symbolical communication. We will call that the symbolical communication dimension and we believe that an ambassador should include that in how and what it communicates to an audience. Hereafter follows, as another example, a photo of a enormous ad, taken in the Fair of Nature, Hunting and Fishing, in Ciudad Real (figure 1). 234 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... Figure 1: Hunting in Mexico, dead animals or “service” evidence, as ambassador, Fair of Nature, Hunting and Fishing, Ciudad Real, Spain Source: photo by the author, September 2009 It promotes hunting in Mexico! From a cognitive point if view it fairly describes the expected “delivered value”, that is: a big hunting harvest, as is rarely imaginable nowadays in Europe. From the affecive point of view, people like me will find it disgusting and the effect will be a strong rejection, avoidance: I find the image disgusting (emotional reaction). On another hand it expresses a way of life and a set of values (non respect of animal life and especially species that become rarer and rarer) to which a consumer like me does not adhere at all (symbolic communication). But for people belonging to the target it generates excitement, a set of shared values and a will to know moore and if possible, to come (cf interviews conducted in the fair). Those are therefore good examples of both affective and symbolical ambassador-based positioning statement. The next photo is taken in Geneva airport, where it is displayed since 2009. 235 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... Figure 2: The Spa by Valmont, service evidence and landscape as ambassadors, Geneva airport, International transit area Source: photo by the author, displayed since 2009 till 2011 From a cognitive point of view it says four things: hands (probably expert hands) will take care of you, while you relax (photos 1 (left up) & 3 (left down)). We, and You, will take care of you (photo 2 (right up)), and you will find, close to you, the pure Swiss nature and mountains, From an affective point of view, photos 1, 2, 3 are pretty: this aesthetic value creates a contagion effect that will transfer from the beauty of the woman to the ad and the destination, impacting beliefs about the destination. Photos 1 & 3 also express relaxation, intimacy, which positively impact brand communication in e.g. cosmetics, health care, etc. photo 2 expresses some eroticism – is this woman relaxing, or caressing herself? A combination of relaxation and excitement tainted by eroticism might be elicited here, and some focus groups should reveal if this holds true, AND if this enhances persuasion or not – again it probably will depend of the targeted men and women. From a symbolical point of view, those ads depict silence, majesty, authenticity. We don’t see here a provocative Russian millionaire on the most magnificent yacht: we see intimacy, authenticity. For people adhering to this way of life and whose self-concept corresponds to such values (Belk 1988, 1989; Belk & al. 1989), this will exert a positive leverage effect in communication. A last example is a photo taken at Charles de Gaulle airport-Exit after customs control, Terminal 4, in Dec. 2006. It promotes Tourism to India as a part of a large international campaign (Read here: “All Indians are not polite, caring and vegetarians”). 236 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... Figure 3: Incredible India, an iconic animal as an ambassador, CDG International airport Source: photo by the author About affective route: the landscape is dry, not particularly pretty, nothing aesthetically special. The character is not a famous human such as Nicole Kidman or an Indian minister. But is extremely consistent with the destination as tigers are still many in India. It delivers information on what can be seen or found there (cognitive route of persuasion). The animal may also express a sort of wilderness and sense of primitiveness, and then authenticity: authenticity is actually a strong driver of tourism towards the Far East (symbolical route). Wilderness may frighten some tourists; but it can motivate and attract: we cannot understand certain sport activities such as climbing, trekking, and leisure (watching action films and thrillers) without integrating that negative emotions can also create value: consumers do not look only for pleasure; they can sometimes look for pain, ugliness, danger and challenges. This can also create arousal, pleasure and attract, retain and affiliate (Bitner 1992): negative emotions can actually create approach behaviors and again, this will be the source of a refined segmentation strategy for the brand manager. Finally, the tiger is here a relevant and efficient cognitive and symbolical destination ambassador. COMMUNICATION ISSUES: THE EFFECTS OF A BRAND AMBASSADOR We have already touched in the given examples the fact that images and in particular ambassadors, can communicate following different ways, called routes of persuasion. We start now analysing how they effectively do communicate in a more theoretical and conceptual way. This will allow us in the last part of the article to review the role of the brand ambassador, applying it to the case of the destination ambassador. 237 Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 229-258, 2012 P. B. Diesbach: TOURISTIC DESTINATION AMBASSADORS, CASE ANALYSIS AND ... 1. The cognitive route of persuasion A first possibility can be using an ambassador, being a real character, perceived as knowledgeable because she has an expertise, either as a “producer” or as a customer, in the mentioned area of services. For instance, Dayanara Torres is used by Philippinian authorities to promote medical tourism towards Philippines. She is not a doctor but was a 1993 Miss Universe, a fabulous model, and has gone through different cosmetic surgery operations: she is an expert “consumer” and reinforces a trust-based persuasion route. See:http://www.healism.com/blogs/the_stanley_rubenti_medical_tourism_blog/philippi nes%E2%80%99_newest_medical_tourism_promoter:_dayanara_torres/). Conversely the DEIRA clinic at Dubai uses a service “producer” as ambassador: her role is to reassure the prospect via a feeling of more technical expertise. She is a woman – complicity with female consumers, i.e. reassurance + demand from muslim husbands or brothers than no man should medically attend their wife or sister - and her Vitae is visible on the very homepage, just below a nice photo of a female patient being reassured by a doctor (figure 4). Figure 4: DEIRA Clinic, a service provider as ambassador Source: http://www.pmcdubai.com/deira_gynecology_obstetrics. htm (June 28th, 2011) On the other hand, ambassadors, apart from the delivered message per se, can exert a leverage effect on what is said in the rest of the ad, commercial or website. A first kind of leverage effect could be considered as rather cognitive in the sense that an ambassador could reinforce the weight, the strength of the arguments used in the ad or commercial. We call this first route a Cognitive persuasion route. We must point out here that the definition of “cognitive” (vs affective) would deserve a whole PhD dissertation per se, and cannot be summarized or justified in 5 lines. We will just stick 238