Topical O Level Biology Topical Revision Notes is a comprehensive guide based on the O latest syllabus. It is written to provide candidates sitting for the O Level Biology L E REVISION examination with thorough revision material. Important concepts are presented in V E simple and concise points for easier reference. Relevant examples and diagrams L are incorporated into the notes to facilitate the understanding of important NOTES concepts. T O P O Level Topical Revision Notes Series: I C Mathematics A Additional Mathematics L R Physics E V BIOLOGY C Chemistry I S M Biology IO Y Science Physics N Science Chemistry N CM O Science Biology T Lye Ai Fern BSc (Hons), PGDE MY E S CY CMY B I K O L O G Y Includes ü Comprehensive Revision Notes ü Effective Study Guide ISBN 978 981 288 018 5 BIOLOGY Lye Ai Fern BSc (Hons), PGDE SHINGLEE PUBLISHERS PTE LTD 120 Hillview Avenue #05-06/07 Kewalram Hillview Singapore 669594 Tel: 6760 1388 Fax: 6762 5684 e-mail: [email protected] http://www.shinglee.com.sg All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the Publishers. First Published 2016 ISBN 978 981 288 018 5 Printed in Singapore PREFACE O Level Biology Topical Revision Notes has been written in accordance with the latest syllabus issued by the Ministry of Education, Singapore. This book is divided into 16 topics, each covering a topic as laid out in the syllabus. Important concepts are highlighted in each topic, with relevant examples and diagrams to help students better understand the concepts. We believe this book will be of great help to teachers teaching the subject and students preparing for their O Level Biology examination. Preface iii CONTENTS Topic 1 Cell Structure and Organisation 1 Topic 2 Movement of Substances 6 Topic 3 Biological Molecules 11 Topic 4 Nutrition in Humans 20 Topic 5 Nutrition in Plants 27 Topic 6 Transport in Flowering Plants 32 Topic 7 Transport in Humans 39 Topic 8 Respiration in Humans 51 Topic 9 Excretion in Humans 58 Topic 10 Homeostasis 65 Topic 11 Co-ordination and Response in Humans 70 Topic 12 Reproduction 82 Topic 13 Cell Division 95 Topic 14 Molecular Genetics 106 Topic 15 Inheritance 112 Topic 16 Organisms and their Environment 124 iv Contents TOPIC Cell Structure and Organisation 1 Objectives Candidates should be able to: (a) identify cell structures (including organelles) of typical plant and animal cells from diagrams, photomicrographs and as seen under the light microscope using prepared slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining technique: • chloroplasts • cell surface membrane • cell wall • cytoplasm • cell vacuoles (large, sap-filled in plant cells, small, temporary in animal cells) • nucleus (b) identify the following membrane systems and organelles from diagrams and electron micrographs: • endoplasmic reticulum • mitochondria • Golgi body • ribosomes (c) state the functions of the membrane systems and organelles identified above (d) compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells (e) state, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following: • absorption – root hair cells • conduction and support – xylem vessels • transport of oxygen – red blood cells (f) differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system 1.1 Animal cell 1. The following is a diagram of a generalised animal cell as seen under an electron microscope: centriole cell surface cytoplasm membrane rough endoplasmic reticulum nucleus nucleolus vesicle smooth endoplasmic reticulum vacuole free ribosomes Golgi apparatus mitochondrion A generalised animal cell Cell Structure and Organisation 1 2. The cell surface membrane or plasma membrane is a partially permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of the cell. It controls substances entering or leaving the cell. 3. The cytoplasm is the gel-like matrix embedded with organelles. It is the site of most cellular activities. 4. The cell vacuoles are small fluid-filled spaces bound by a membrane. In animal cells they store water and food substances. They are usually not permanent. 5. The nucleus is an organelle surrounded by an envelope called the nuclear envelope. It contains darker bodies called nucleoli (singular: nucleolus) and thread-like structures called chromatin which are made of DNA. The nucleus controls cellular activities such as growth, repair, and cell division. 6. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes forming tubes and flattened spaces. There are two types of ER: (a) The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not have ribosomes attached to it. It synthesises fats and steroids such as sex hormones. It also contains enzymes that detoxify drugs and poisons. (b) The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is studded with ribosomes. Ribosomes in the cell can either be free ribosomes (i.e. they lie freely in the cytoplasm) or be attached to the membrane of the RER. Ribosomes synthesise proteins. 7. All proteins made in the RER depart in membrane-bound vesicles to the Golgi apparatus. 8. The Golgi apparatus resembles a stack of flattened disc-shaped spaces surrounded by membranes. It stores, sorts and modifies substances made by the ER, and packages them in vesicles to be secreted out of the cell. 9. The mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are small elongated organelles with folded inner membranes. Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Aerobic respiration is the process where energy is extracted from food substances in the presence of oxygen. This energy is used by the cell to perform cellular activities such as growth and cell division. 10. The centrioles are a pair of barrel-shaped structures at right angles to each other. They play a role in cell division. Centrioles are usually absent in plants. 2 TOPIC 1 Cell Structure and Organisation 1.2 Plant cell 1. The following is a diagram of a generalised plant cell as seen under an electron microscope: Golgi apparatus free ribosome vesicle chloroplast smooth endoplasmic reticulum nucleolus nucleus rough endoplasmic reticulum large central vacuole tonoplast cell surface membrane mitochondrion cell wall cytoplasm A generalised plant cell 2. The plant cell contains most of the structures present in an animal cell, with a few differences: (a) Instead of many small vacuoles, plant cells have a large central vacuole filled with cell sap, surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast. Cell sap is mainly made up of water, with dissolved amino acids and mineral salts. Besides storage, the vacuole also takes in waste products and water. (b) Presence of a cellulose cell wall – The cell wall is non-living and fully permeable. It protects the cell from injury and gives the cell its shape. (c) Presence of chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are oval membrane-bound organelles filled with chlorophyll. They are the sites of photosynthesis, which is the process by which plants make food. (d) Centrioles are absent. Note: The structures visible under a light microscope would be: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles, cell wall and chloroplasts. TOPIC 1 Cell Structure and Organisation 3 1.3 Adaptation of cells to their functions 1. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the body tissues via the blood. Adaptations to this function include: (a) Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, an oxygen-carrying protein. (b) Red blood cells have no nucleus, so they have a flattened biconcave shape with a dumbbell-shaped cross section. This enables them to have a higher surface area to volume ratio for faster diffusion of oxygen. It also allows the cell to be more flexible when squeezing through blood capillaries. dumbbell-shaped cross section Cross-section of a red blood cell 2. Xylem vessels are elongated hollow tubes that are made of xylem cells linked end to end. Xylem cells are dead at maturity. They conduct water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves of the plant. They also play a role in mechanical support. Adaptations to these functions include: (a) Absence of protoplasm and cross-walls which could impede water flow through the lumen (internal cavity) (b) Deposition of lignin on the cell walls which strengthens vessel walls, providing support lumen lumen lumen lumen lignin Xylem vessels 4 TOPIC 1 Cell Structure and Organisation