DEDICATION To Nathaniel, who always believes in me. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to the Palestinian farmers who opened up to me and shared your stories. I will always be in awe of your strength and determination in the face of such overwhelming odds. Thank you to Carol Sardonini for your excellent proofreading, editing, and advice. Your help has been invaluable and much appreciated. Thank you to Dr. Glavanis, Dr. McMahon, and Dr. El Musa for being so willing to work with me and offer advice and guidance. iv ABSTRACT The American University in Cairo The Palestinian Agricultural Sector: Deepening Dependency and the Failure of International Development Aid Nicole D. Halbert Advised by: Dr. Pandeli Glavanis This research argues that developed aid given to the Palestinian agricultural sector does not help lead to Palestinian self-sufficiency. Rather, Palestinian agriculture is completely dependent on Israel and funding for agricultural development projects furthers Palestinian dependency and economic interconnection. This research relies heavily on past academic analyses and fieldwork conducted in Palestine in October, 2011. This research concludes that development aid should be invested in areas where the Palestinian National Authority has greater control such as education and healthcare. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. FIGURES, TABLES AND MAPS ……………………………………………...... vii II. ABBREVIATIONS …………………………………………………………….. viii III. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………… 1 A. Methodology ………………………………………………………… 2 B. Materials ……………………………………………………………….. 4 C. Contribution ……………………………………………………………. 5 D. Chapter Outline ………………………………………………………….. 6 IV. CHAPTER ONE – AN OVERVIEW …………………………………………….. 8 A. Origins of Conflict ……………………………………………………… 10 B. The Bigger Picture ……………………………………………………… 19 C. Literature Review ………………………………………………………. 20 V. CHAPTER TWO – THE PALESTINIAN NATIONAL AUTHORITY ………… 28 A. Palestinian National Authority Background …………………………. 29 B. Palestinian National Authority Funding ………………………………. 31 C. The PNA and the Palestinian Agricultural Sector …….…………….. 35 D. Agricultural Organizations …………………………………………….. 36 E. Agricultural Development Projects – Greenhouses ……………………… 44 F. Agricultural Development Projects – Wastewater Treatment Plants.…… 46 G. Implications ……………………………………………………………. 47 VI. CHAPTER THREE – AGRICULTURAL INPUTS …………………………….. 50 A. Land ……………………………………………………………………… 51 B. Water …………………………………………………………………….. 60 C. Labor …………………………………………………………………… 80 D. Seeds …………………………………………………………………….. 83 E. Chemicals ……………………………………………………………….. 85 F. Infrastructure ……………………………………………………………. 87 G. Power ……………………………………………………………………. 89 H. Transportation ………………………………………………………….. 90 I. Conclusion……………………………………………………………. 91 VII. CHAPTER FOUR – AGRICULTURAL OUTPUTS …………………………… 92 A. Quality of Product ………………………………………………………. 92 B. Markets ………………………………………………………………….. 95 C. Marketing and Certifications …………………………………………… 101 D. Post – Harvest Systems ………………………………………………… 104 E. Transportation ..……………………………………………………… 105 F. Conclusion ………………………………………………………….. .. 105 VIII. CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………………… 107 A. Looking to the Future …………………………………………………… 109 IX. BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………………… 111 X. APPENDIX ………………………………………………………………………. 118 vi FIGURES, TABLES, AND MAPS Figures 3.1 – Settler increase 58 4.1 – Tomato price fluctuation, 2008-2010 99 Tables 1.1 - Foreign Aid to the OPT, 1994-2006 9-10 2.1 – UNDP Estimates of Donor Assistance to WB and Gaza, 1992-1993 32-33 4.1 – Balance of transfer fruits and vegetables between the OPT and Israel 96 4.2 – Agricultural quotas for daily movement to Israel, 2007 97 Maps 1.1 – UN Resolution 181 – Partition Plan 15 2.1 – Tubas Governorate 40 3.1 – Greater Jerusalem 56 3.2 – The Jordan River 61 3.3 – Springs in the West Bank 72 vii ABBREVIATIONS ARIJ – Applied Research Institute – Jerusalem GM – genetically modified HLT – Holy Land Trust IDF – Israel Defense Forces JRV – Jordan River Valley JVS – Jordan Valley Solidarity JWC – Joint Water Committee LRC – Land Research Center MoA – Ministry of Agriculture NIS – New Israeli Shekel PARC – Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committee PCBS – Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics PHG – Palestinian Hydrology Group PLC – Palestinian Legislative Council PLO – Palestinian Liberation Organization PNA – Palestinian National Authority WV – World Vision viii INTRODUCTION This research analyzes the Palestinian agricultural sector and highlights its dependence on Israel. The initial research began with an interest in water shortage along the Jordan River Valley and developed into an analysis of how international development aid to Palestine has had many unexpected consequences. This research follows three themes: Israeli economic, political, and physical control over the Palestinian agricultural sector; the dependence the Palestinian agricultural sector on Israel for virtually all inputs and outputs and how development aid contributes to and perpetuates this dependence. In order to create a viable and independent Palestinian state, there must be a realistic understanding of the current Palestinian situation. Decisions regarding funding and allocation of resources must be predicated on determination of the strengths and weaknesses of Israeli control. Will development aid or investment build a truly independent institution or practice, or will it further entrench a web of imposed dependency? If the goal of aid to Palestine is to increase self-reliance and autonomy, than acknowledging the influence Israel has over the Palestinian agricultural sector is vital in allocating this aid. The analytical framework for this work is based on the political economy approach characterized by Sara Roy, Neve Gordon, Eyal Weizman, and Shir Hever. Israel’s Occupation by Neve Gordon, Failing Peace: Gaza and the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict by Sara Roy and Hollow Land: Israel’s Architecture of Occupation by Eyal 1 Weizman were extremely useful. In addition to these works, Israel: A Colonial-Settler State by Maxime Rodinson and The Political Economy of Israel’s Occupation: Repression Beyond Exploitation by Shir Hever were also very important in developing my theoretical framework. Israeli state formation and the historical interactions between the two parties have played a major role in shaping the Palestinian agricultural sector. The merging of the Palestinian and Israeli economies and the failure of Oslo to bring about any change in the dependency of Palestinians has led to the present situation in Palestine. The institutions that have developed over the years, such as the Joint Water Committees, play a role in perpetuating the dependency of Palestinian farmers. Many factors have combined to form structures of control over the Palestinian population and to increase the dependency of Palestinian farmers. I highlight development aid and stress the practical and material reasons for developments in Israel- Palestine. This is not to belittle Palestinian agency, certainly Palestinians span a wide variety of viewpoints, lifestyles, and experiences. However, my analytical framework emphasizes how the history and structure of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has led to dependency of the Palestinian agricultural sector. Methodology The fieldwork interview sample group consisted of seven semi-structured interviews with Palestinian farmers in the West Bank, four interviews with Palestinian agronomists or agricultural experts, and four interviews with Palestinian fruit and 2 vegetable vendors. Also, through a focus group, under the auspices of Mr. Feras Badran of the Applied Research Institute Jerusalem (ARIJ), I was able to speak with four farmers who were the heads of different Palestinian agricultural cooperatives. I chose to use semi- structured interviews because this allowed me to follow a list of questions but gave me the leeway to further explore or ask for clarification of responses. This allowed me, I believe, to gain the trust of the farmers I worked with and gave me greater flexibility during the interview process. In order to recruit participants for this research I contacted the groups Jordan Valley Solidarity, Holy Land Trust and the Applied Research Institute Jerusalem (ARIJ) asking for their help in introducing me to Palestinian farmers who were willing to participate in this research study. This initial introduction helped to make participants feel more at ease since I was working through an organization they recognized and trusted. The demographic make-up of the participants tended to favor older male heads of the family as the initial contact which then lead to introductions with the rest of the family. Farming in Palestine tends to be a family affair so I often interviewed fathers, sons, wives, and daughters together. Social links and networks play a large role in Palestinian life. Once I had made a few initial contacts these people were often able to introduce me to farmers or point me in the right direction. An introduction from another Palestinian helped in alleviating stress and ensured that participants felt less threatened. There were certain dangers in conducting interviews under an occupation. Interviewing Palestinians under constant duress made it harder to gain their trust and it 3 was at times difficult to persuade Palestinians to speak freely with me about the state of Palestinian agriculture. I used a process of triangulation to augment my research. Not only did I conduct interviews with Palestinian farmers, I also spoke to a number of Palestinian experts in the region regarding their views on the lives of Palestinian farmers and the impact development aid and market interconnectedness have had on Palestinian agriculture. I asked these experts how they viewed the dependency of the Palestinian agriculture sector and how this fit into the greater scheme of the overall Israeli-Palestinian conflict. I utilized secondary sources in Palestine and these texts combined with individual interviews and expert opinions have helped to make me more confident of my findings and have reinforced my results. I acknowledge that the fieldwork entails a degree of possible error as some accuracy is always lost in translation. Moreover, how I steered conversations and the irremovable filter of my own background and research affected how I carried out the project. The information cited from my interviews displays as evenhanded a selection of the wealth of my interviews as can be had, and demonstrates, as I show through thesis, the interconnectedness and complete dependence of the Palestinian agricultural sector on Israel. Materials My research focuses on the current agricultural situation in the West Bank and the failure of development aid. I utilized written materials, both primary and secondary. I 4