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Title: Tirant lo Blanch; a study of its authorship, principal sources and historical setting Author: Joseph Anthony Vaeth Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65913] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 Produced by: Nahum Maso i Carcases, Emmanuel Ackerman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIRANT LO BLANCH; A STUDY OF ITS AUTHORSHIP, PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND HISTORICAL SETTING *** Transcriber’s Notes: The original spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation have been retained, with the exception of apparent typographical errors which have been corrected. Columbia University STUDIES IN ROMANCE PHILOLOGY AND LITERATURE TIRANT LO BLANCH COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS SALES AGENTS NEW YORK LEMCKE & BUECHNER 30-32 West 27th Street LONDON HUMPHREY MILFORD Amen Corner, E.C. SHANGHAI EDWARD EVANS & SONS, Ltd. 30 North Szechuen Road TIRANT LO BLANCH A STUDY OF ITS AUTHORSHIP PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND HISTORICAL SETTING [i] [ii] [iii] BY JOSEPH A. VAETH, Ph.D. INSTRUCTOR IN ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN NEW YORK UNIVERSITY New York COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1918 All rights reserved Copyright, 1918 By Columbia University Press Printed from type, May, 1918 Approved for publication, on behalf of the Department of Romance Languages and Literatures of Columbia University. Henry Alfred Todd New York, December, 1917. TO PROFESSOR RAYMOND WEEKS WHOSE ENTHUSIASM, SCHOLARSHIP AND DEVOTION TO FRANCE HAVE BEEN OF SUCH FAR- REACHING INFLUENCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN AMERICA, THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED PREFACE On my return to Columbia University in the fall of 1914 for the purpose of continuing my studies, I consulted Professor H.A. Todd in regard to available subjects for a doctoral dissertation. In the course of our conversation he called my attention to a large volume which had been presented to him by Mr. Archer M. Huntington. It was a facsimile copy of the first edition of the Catalan romance of chivalry, Tirant lo Blanch. Realizing that here was an opportunity to become intimately acquainted with a work that was made well known, in name at least, by Cervantes in his celebrated Don Quijote, I eagerly accepted the suggestion of Professor Todd to examine the book with a view of ascertaining what possibilities Tirant lo Blanch might offer in the field of literary investigation. I immediately began to consult the local libraries, and discovered that no elaborate and extensive study of this work had been made. After I had read the romance my mind was made up that the subject of my dissertation would be based on this Catalan work. I saw in it an abundance of material which provided excellent opportunities for research work. I experienced no little difficulty in selecting the special problems and investigations which were to claim my close and serious attention. Fortunately I again looked over the cards in the Catalogue of the Library of the Hispanic Society, and to my surprise I found a new card which indicated that a critical study of this Catalan work had been published in 1912, the Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch by Givanel Mas. After a careful study of this comprehensive and scholarly production and all other available sources [iv] [v] [vii] [ix] [x] of information pertaining to this subject, I found myself deeply interested in the question of the authorship of this romance, its principal sources, and its historical setting. During the course of my researches and investigations, I have on numerous occasions been the recipient of favors and acts of kindness which, although not bearing directly on my work, nevertheless facilitated my labors and stimulated my efforts. I therefore take advantage of this opportunity to express my most sincere thanks to the following persons: to Doctor Peter H. Goldsmith, Director of the Inter-American Division of the American Association for International Conciliation, and Editor of the Inter-America; to Don F. Javier Salas, Consul General of Spain at New York; to Professor H.C. Heaton of New York University; and to Mr. Louis Imbert of Columbia University. To Professor E.B. Babcock of New York University I am deeply indebted for sympathetic encouragement and valuable suggestions, and for his patient reading of the proof-sheets. I am exceedingly grateful to Professor J.L. Gerig of Columbia University for a critical reading of the MS., for suggesting certain improvements, for his good will and helpful advice, and for his final reading of the proof-sheets. It is extremely difficult to express in an adequate manner my appreciation and gratitude to Professor H.A. Todd, who, from the beginning to the end of the work, advised, guided, and encouraged me. His kind and never-failing interest in his students and their work is, it is needless to say, a constant source of inspiration. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 1 Quotation from Don Quijote, with comments.—Valencia edition of Tirant lo Blanch.—Barcelona edition of 1497, of which the only complete copy known is in the library of the Hispanic Society.—Other editions and translations published.—Scope of this study. PART I. ANALYSIS OF TIRANT LO BLANCH Chapter I. The William of Warwick Episode 7 William of Warwick a noble and valiant English knight.—He makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, returns, and lives as a hermit near Warwick.—Moorish invasion of England.—William of Warwick becomes the hermit-king and the commander of the English forces.—Defeat and annihilation of the Moors.—He gives back to the former king the royal insignia, and retires to a new hermitage.— The King of England announces an assembly of the General Court in London.— Meeting of Tirant lo Blanch and the hermit, William of Warwick, at the hermitage.—The marriage of the king and the festivities of the General Court.— On his way back to Brittany Tirant visits the hermit.—The principal events that took place near and in London.—Tirant proclaimed the best knight.—His exploits: he vanquishes two champions of the field, also the Lord of Viles Hermes; without arms he kills a fierce mastiff; he vanquishes the kings of Friesland and of Poland, and the dukes of Burgundy and of Bavaria; his prospective combat with Kirielayson de Muntalba; he defeats Thomas de Muntalba; combat with the Knight Villa Formosa.—Narration concerning the Order of the Garter.—Tirant takes leave of the hermit and returns to Brittany. Chapter II. Tirant succors the Knights of Rhodes 26 [xi] Tirant is received with great honors in the city of Nantes. He learns that the knights of Rhodes are besieged by the Moors and are in a desperate plight.—On a large ship heavily laden with provisions he, accompanied by Philip, the youngest son of the King of France, sets sail for Rhodes.—Makes landing at Lisbon.— Voyage resumed.—Ship attacked by Moorish vessels but finally reaches Sicily. —Philip becomes a suitor for the hand of the Sicilian princess, Ricomana.—The king of Sicily accompanies Tirant and the ship succeeds in reaching the castle of Rhodes.—The Moors raise the siege.—Tirant, with his royal companions, goes to Jerusalem and then to Alexandria, where he ransoms many Christian captives. —Philip marries Ricomana. Chapter III. Tirant joins the Expedition of the King of France against the Infidels 31 Tirant, in a galley of his own, joins the combined fleet of the Christians.— Attack on the city of Tripoli in Syria fails.—Quarrel between Tirant and Ricart lo Venturos for the honor of being the last to board the ship.—The Turkish coast is plundered and devastated and fleet sails for Tunis.—In the attack on that city Tirant falls in a ditch and is rescued by Ricart.—Tunis is captured.—Fleet sailed along coast of Barbary and finally disbanded at Marseilles.—Tirant visits his parents and then, at the request of Philip, returns to Sicily. Chapter IV. Tirant enters the Service of the Emperor of Constantinople 33 At the request of the Emperor of Constantinople, Tirant sets sail for that imperial city, and immediately upon his arrival is named commander of the Emperor’s forces.—He falls in love with the charming princess, Carmesina.— Opposition to Tirant.—Princess warns him against the treacherous Duke of Macedonia.—Tirant’s novel way of confessing his love.—Review of the Imperial troops.—First encounter with the Turks.—The Duke defies Tirant.—Two thousand soldiers sent by the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes arrive to help Tirant.—Tirant’s strategy wins another victory.—The Turks decide that Tirant must be slain.—The King of Egypt’s challenge accepted by Tirant.— Quarrel between Tirant and the Duke.—Five thousand men sent by Philip, now king of Sicily, arrive to join Tirant.—Emperor and Princess visit the camp.— Great rout of the Turks.—Tirant’s companion, Diaphebus, appointed Constable. —Tirant captures ships laden with provisions for the enemy.—Fleet of the Grand Caramany and the King of Sobirana India dispersed and the royal leaders captured.—Tirant obliged to remain in bed in Constantinople in order that a serious wound received in naval battle may heal.—Arrival of five thousand “franc archers.”—Tirant’s passionate love.—Viuda Reposada’s jealousy.—Diaphebus marries Stephania.—Tirant in Carmesina’s chamber.—Hippolyte and the Empress.—Tirant and Carmesina exchange vows.—Tirant embarks to return to camp.—Tirant’s ship is driven by a storm to the shores of Barbary, where it is wrecked. Chapter V. Tirant conquers all Barbary 54 Tirant reaches the shore and takes refuge in a cave.—He is discovered and sent to a castle in the kingdom of Tremicen as a prisoner.—He takes up arms in defense of this kingdom, which is attacked by Scariano, the King of Tunis.— Maragdina, the daughter of the King of Tremicen, is captured by Scariano, who, in his turn, is captured by Tirant.—Maragdina, Scariano, and a multitude of Moors become Christians.—Several Moorish kings of Barbary determine to exterminate the Christians, but are forced to give up their designs.—Tirant now makes up his mind to conquer all Barbary.—The siege of Montagata.—Senyor Dagramunt and Plaer de mi Vida become the king and queen of Fez and Bugia. —Caramen, the last city to oppose the Christians, is captured.—Tirant gathers an army of 250,000 men at Constantine to reconquer all the lost territory for the Emperor of Constantinople.—Christianity is firmly established in Barbary. Chapter VI. Tirant returns to Constantinople and the Greek Empire is completely restored 61 Tirant’s immense expedition surprises the Moorish vessels which blockade the port of Constantinople.—The Sultan and the Grand Turk sue for peace.— Tirant’s visit to the Imperial Palace.—The Emperor’s conditions of peace accepted by the Moors.—The betrothal of Tirant and Carmesina.—He is proclaimed Caesar of the Empire and successor to the imperial crown.—He sets out with a large army to accomplish the restoration of the empire.—This task completed, he starts back for Constantinople.—His death.—The despair and passing away of the Emperor and Carmesina.—Hippolyte becomes Emperor. [xii] [xiii] [xiv] PART II. AUTHORSHIP OF TIRANT LO BLANCH Chapter I. In what Language was Tirant lo Blanch first written? 69 Purport of dedicatory letter.—Note at the conclusion of the book.—Reasons for doubting the accuracy of the statements made by Martorell and de Galba.— Was there an English original of Tirant lo Blanch?—Was there a Portuguese translation or a Portuguese original?—Parallel passages from Lull’s Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria and from Tirant lo Blanch.—Others from Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge and from Martorell’s work.—Strong evidence that Tirant lo Blanch was originally written in Catalan. Chapter II. In what Way was de Galba connected with the Production of Tirant lo Blanch? 91 De Galba asserts that he translated the fourth part, the end of the work.— The book is not divided into four parts.—The inconsistency of the proposed seven parts explained.—Internal evidence refutes the statements of de Galba.— Perhaps he composed the last chapter.—Probably did no more than to prepare the MS. for the printer. PART III. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TIRANT LO BLANCH AND THE SOURCES: GUY OF WARWICK; LIFE OF ROGER DE FLOR IN MUNTANER’S CHRONICA; AND LULL’S L I BRE DEL ORDE D’CAUAYLERIA Chapter I. William of Warwick stands for the Mature Guy of Warwick 97 View generally held that Tirant lo Blanch stands for Roger de Flor.—A close study of Guy of Warwick tends to change that view.—The William of Warwick episode is based on the latter part of the career of Guy of Warwick.—The principal part of Lull’s work which was utilized in the episode. Chapter II. Tirant lo Blanch resembles young Guy of Warwick 104 Tirant and Guy are victors in knightly contests.—Their love affairs.—Guy’s career at Constantinople.—Comparison with Tirant’s career at that imperial city. Chapter III. Roger de Flor’s Career at Constantinople 112 Arrival of the Catalan-Aragonese expedition.—Battle between the almogávares and the Genoese.—First victory over the Turks.—Roger begins his triumphant march through Anatolia.—Arrival of reinforcements.—The power of the Turks completely broken.—Roger proclaimed Caesar of the empire.—He is slain at Adrianople.—Points of resemblance in the careers of Tirant lo Blanch and Roger de Flor. Chapter IV. Other Material from the Chronica utilized by Martorell 117 The Emperor’s attitude towards the Genoese.—Xor Miqueli.—Arrival of reinforcements.—The story of Paris and Helen.—En Fernan de Ahones.—The raising of the siege of Messina. Chapter V. Other Material from Guy of Warwick 122 The shipwreck of Heraud.—The story of Earl Jonas of Darras.—Felice was well versed in the seven arts.—Guy’s desperate love.—Oisel’s devotion to Tirri. —Felice justifies her attitude towards Guy.—Felice’s expression of grief and despair as Guy lies dead on the bier before her.—The love story which unfortunately is debased by the author.—Conclusion: Tirant lo Blanch bears a stronger resemblance to Guy of Warwick than to Roger de Flor.—The exploits of Roger de Flor do not constitute the principal source of Tirant lo Blanch. PART IV. THE HISTORICAL BASES UPON WHICH TIRANT’S SPHERES OF OPERATION ARE FOUNDED Chapter I. The William of Warwick Episode 133 This episode is given a setting in the first part of the fifteenth century.—Henry VI and Richard of Beauchamp.—Sir John Stuart and the Duke of Exeter.—The author’s method in composing his work. Chapter II. Concerning the Order of the Garter 140 [xv] Inconsistency of two passages in Tirant lo Blanch.—Circumstances that led to the institution of this Order.—Names of members selected by the King.— Golden Collar of the members.—Although some of the details are inaccurate from a historical standpoint, yet Martorell reveals an intimate knowledge of the Order. Chapter III. Tirant succors the Knights of Rhodes 146 The attempt of the Genoese to capture Rhodes.—Rhodes threatened by the Turks.—Siege of Rhodes, in 1444, forms the historical background of Tirant’s enterprise. Chapter IV. Tirant joins the Expedition of the King of France against the Infidels 150 Certain incidents and geographical names pertaining to this expedition coincide with certain others in connection with the Crusades of Louis IX.— Joinville’s description of the king’s leap into the sea compared with a later version. Chapter V. Tirant conquers and christianizes all Barbary 152 Portuguese campaigns against the Moors do not furnish any material for this undertaking.—Statements in regard to the origin of Tirant lo Blanch apparently refuted.—Muntaner’s Chronica furnished historical background for Tirant’s activities in Barbary, perhaps suggested by Guy of Warwick. Conclusion 158 General description of Tirant lo Blanch.—This Catalan romance of chivalry is a composite historical novel, with a hero of a composite historical character. Bibliography 163 Index 165 TIRANT LO BLANCH INTRODUCTION In Chapter VI of the immortal work, Don Quijote de la Mancha, is given a glowing account of the burning of the books to which were ascribed the mental derangement of the “ingenioso hidalgo.” In the passage in question, Cervantes, speaking through the priest, pays the following tribute to the Catalan romance of chivalry, Tirant lo Blanch: [1]Válame Dios, dijo el Cura, dando una gran voz.—Que aquí esté Tirante el Blanco! Dádmele acá, compadre; que hago cuenta que he hallado en él un tesoro de contento y una mina de pasatiempos. Aquí está D. Quirieleisón de Montalbán, valeroso caballero, y su hermano Tomás de Montalbán, y el caballero Fonseca, con la batalla que el valiente de Tirante hizo con el alano, y las agudezas de la doncella Placerdemivida, con los amores y embustes de la viuda Reposada, y la señora Emperatriz, enamorada de Hipólito, su escudero. Dígoos verdad, señor compadre, que, por su estilo es éste el mejor libro del mundo: aquí comen los caballeros, y duermen, y mueren en sus camas, y hacen testamento antes de su muerte, con otras cosas de que todos los demás libros deste género carecen. Con todo eso, os digo que merecía el que lo compuso, pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria, que le echaran á galeras por todos los días de su vida.[2] [1] Bless me, cried the Priest in a low voice, and is Tirante the White here? Give it to me, gossip, for I reckon that I have found herein a treasure of delight and a mine of entertainment. Here you have Don Qurieleison of Montalvan, the valiant cavalier, and his brother Thomas of Montalvan, and the Knight Fonseca, with the fight which the valiant Tirante had with the big mastiff, and the witty conceits of the damsel Placer-de-mi-vida, and the amours and tricks of the widow Reposada, and my Lady the Empress in love with Hippolito, her squire. I tell you truth, good master gossip, that this for its style is the best book in the world. Here the Knights eat and sleep and die in their beds, and make their wills before dying, with other things that are wanting in all other books of this sort. For all this, I say that he who wrote it is well-deserving; for he did not commit follies purposely which should send him to the galleys for the term of his life—Don Quixote of La Mancha, translated by Henry Edward Watts, London, 1888. [xvi] [1] [2] [2] Cervantes, El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha. Edited and annotated by Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Madrid, 1911; vol. I, chap. vi, pp. 160-163. The last sentence of this quotation is not clear. It has become the subject of many comments and discussions, but no wholly satisfactory explanation has resulted. Menéndez y Pelayo intimates that probably the sign of negation should be omitted from the clause “pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria.” If this were done the passage would make good sense. In the second volume, page 76, of his Introducción a los Orígenes de la Novela he suggests another explanation. He quotes a passage from Juan Rufo which reads as follows: “mas a fe que en algo errárades, y yo fuera presidente, que os avia de echar a galeras pues no podiades hazello de ignorancia.” He is of the opinion that Cervantes expressed or intended to express the same idea as that contained in the words just quoted, but that in some way “industria” was substituted for “ignorancia.” If Cervantes had used the latter word instead of the former, the sentence in question would be free from obscurity. However that may be, it is evident that the judgment of Cervantes concerning Tirant lo Blanch was expressed in a humorous way. Almost the whole of it consists of words of praise. The only adverse criticism is to be found in the last sentence, whereby Cervantes voices his objections to the nonsense and obscene features of the work. According to Menéndez y Pelayo, the whole sentence would be clear if the clause, “pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria,” were not one of negation. It seems to me possible and practicable to remove the negative meaning from the clause without omitting or changing any words that are now found in the text. The clause may be made affirmative, emphatically affirmative, by resorting to the rhetorical device of converting it into a negative interrogation. The sentence may as a result appear complicated, but orally expressed it would not seem unnatural or forced. The passage, with this change in punctuation, would read: “Con todo eso, os digo que merecía el que lo compuso, pues, ¿no hizo tantas necedades de industria? que le echaran á galeras por todos los días de su vida.” Tirant Lo Blanch was first published in Valencia, in 1490. Of this edition there are three copies extant: one in the British Museum, another in the Biblioteca Provincial in Valencia, and the third in the library of the Hispanic Society of New York.[3] Mr. Archer M. Huntington, founder of the above Society and a distinguished patron of Spanish letters, had two hundred facsimile copies made from the last one mentioned.[4] One of these was used in the investigations connected with this dissertation. [3] For the history and description of these three copies see D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart, La Edición príncipe del “Tirant lo Blanch” Cotejo de los tres ejemplares impresos en Valencia, en 1490, únicos conocidos hoy día (Discursos leídos en la Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona en la recepción pública de D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart, Barcelona, 1907). Also see Juan Givanel Mas, Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch, Madrid, 1912; pp. 27-34. [4] Ibid., p. 59. A second edition was published in Barcelona, in 1497. While I was in that city in the summer of 1915, I saw fragments of a copy of this edition in the Institut d’Estudis Catalans. It is to these fragments that Givanel Mas refers in the following words: “Los únicos pliegos que se conocen hoy día de la edición barcelonesa de 1497 del Tirant lo Blanch, se hallan en la Biblioteca del Institut d’Estudis Catalans; comprenden desde el capítulo ccxviiii al ccccxciii y del ccccxxxix al ccccxlv.”[5] [5] Ibid., p. 41, footnote 2. It therefore affords me great pleasure to be able to announce that the Hispanic Society of New York has in its possession a complete copy of the edition of 1497. It is gilt edged and is bound in leather of a yellowish, almost brown, color. Its back is decorated with gilded lines and bears the title Roman del Cavaller | Tirant Blanc | Barcelona | 1497. The title page is missing, but at the end of the book a fragment of paper bearing the words “Tirant lo Blanch” in large letters is pasted on a flyleaf. This fragment is probably a part of the title page. The edges of several pages at the beginning and at the close of the book had been torn, but they have been neatly mended. A considerable number of pages are somewhat soiled, but all are easily legible. The facsimile reproduction of a page of the fragments in Barcelona, which Givanel Mas has inserted in his work, coincides exactly with the corresponding page of the book in the library of the Hispanic Society. This author has also set forth other interesting details concerning the edition of 1497.[6] The colophon of the edition reads: [6] Ibid., pp. 38-42. A honor y gloria d’nostre senyor deu Jeusucrist: fon principiat a stampar lo present libre per mestre Pere miquel condam y es acabat per Diego de gumiel castella en la molt noble e insigne ciutat de Barcelona a .xvi. de Setembre d’l any .M. CCCC. XCVII.[7] [7] To the honor and glory of our Lord God, Jesus Christ: the printing of this book was begun by Master Pere Miquel Condam and is completed by Diego de Gumiel, a Castilian, in the most noble and excellent city of Barcelona on the sixteenth day of September of the year 1497. [3] [4] In 1873 Don Mariano Aguiló y Fuster of Barcelona began the publication of a new edition, but it was not completed until 1905. In this edition the work is divided into four volumes.[8] [8] For further information concerning this edition, see Juan Givanel Mas, op. cit., pp. 43-58. A Spanish translation of Tirant lo Blanch was published in Valladolid, in 1511.[9] The name of the translator is not known. The eminent Catalan book-lover and scholar, Don Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart, of Barcelona, has a copy of it in his library. We have no information in regard to the existence of any other copy. An Italian translation was made by Lelio Manfredi and published in Venice, in 1538.[10] A French translation by the Comte de Caylus was published about 1737; London is given as the place of publication, but this is probably incorrect.[11] [9] Ibid., pp. 61-76. [10] Ibid., pp. 70-89. [11] Ibid., pp. 90-104. In the course of my studies of Tirant lo Blanch, I have found myself confronted by three important questions: (1) What are the real facts concerning the authorship of this book of chivalry? (2) Is it true that Tirant, the hero of the book, stands for the historic personage Roger de Flor, in connection with the Catalan-Aragonese expedition to Constantinople in the early years of the fourteenth century? (3) What are the historical data utilized by the author in the composition of his work? Each of these problems I have investigated, and the processes and results are duly set forth in their appropriate places in this work. Three distinct parts of it will be devoted to a consideration of these three questions. They will be preceded by an analysis of Tirant lo Blanch, to which the reader will be referred whenever it may be deemed expedient or necessary. The analysis is, moreover, intended to throw light on all the points mentioned in the quotation from Don Quijote; to give a fuller account of the activities of Tirant than has been done up to the present time; and to give as accurate an idea of the book as a reasonable allotment of space will permit. PART I ANALYSIS OF TIRANT LO BLANCH CHAPTER I THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE On the delightful island of England there lived a noble and valiant knight. For many years he performed with great honor the duties pertaining to knighthood. This noble representative of chivalry was Earl William of Warwick. He was very strong and well-trained in the use of arms. Many were the battles in which he took part, and many a formidable adversary was vanquished by him. (Chap. 2) Having reached the age of fifty-five years, moved by sorrow and contrition for the many deaths he had caused in his knightly career, he resolved to do penance for his sins by making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The announcement of his intention to the Countess, his wife, caused her a severe shock. The Earl called his servants before him and paid them all that was due them and much more. To the Countess he gave possession of the whole county, with the privilege of doing with it what she wished. He caused a gold ring to be made bearing his escutcheon and that of the Countess. This ring was wrought in such a way that it could be divided into two parts, each being a complete ring in itself, but showing only one half of the escutcheons. One of these he gave to the Countess, asking her to keep it until his return. In long lamentations she bewailed her sad fate. But the Earl was resolute, and with tears streaming down his cheeks took leave of his wife and son, the latter being only three months old. Leaving the city of Warwick accompanied by a squire, he sailed to Alexandria, and thence made his way to Jerusalem. Here he made a careful and contrite confession of his sins and received Holy Communion. After visiting the Holy Sepulcher and other holy places in this city, he returned to Alexandria, and set sail for Venice, where he dismissed his squire, who, in accordance with the instructions given him by his master, spread the report that Earl William of Warwick was dead. The Earl also had merchants write letters to England, in which they [5] [7] [8] told that William of Warwick had died while returning from Jerusalem. The Countess was grief-stricken when she received the bad tidings, and caused funeral obsequies to be celebrated in a manner befitting the Earl’s station. (Chaps. 2-4) After some time had elapsed the Earl returned to his native land. He was greatly changed in appearance. Long hair hung over his shoulders, and his snow-white beard reached to his girdle. In the garb of a Franciscan monk, he came to a hermitage of Our Lady not far distant from the city of Warwick, and there lived all alone, avoiding all worldly affairs in order that he might make atonement for his transgressions. Once a week he went into the city of Warwick to solicit alms. No one recognized him, on account of his beard and long hair. He used to go to the Countess to ask for charity, and she, touched by his profound humility, would give to him more than to the other mendicants. And thus he lived undisturbed for some time. (Chap. 4) Now it happened that corsairs had plundered a city belonging to the King of Canary. This Moorish king became enraged when he heard of it, and prepared a great fleet to invade England. One dark night this fleet entered the port of Dantona [Hampton, i.e. Southampton]. The Moors disembarked without being seen or heard by the English. When the English king was informed of this invasion, he quickly gathered all his available men to drive back the invaders, but his forces were defeated and he was obliged to retreat towards the city of Saint Thomas of Canterbury. Along a river near this place he made a stand, but was again defeated. After losing nine battles, one after another, he sought refuge in the city of London. But the scarcity of provisions soon compelled him to evacuate this place, and he withdrew to the city of Warwick, which was well supplied with food, arms and all the instruments of warfare. The Countess offered all that was in her county to the unfortunate monarch. The Moors pursued the retreating forces, and on the way captured the castle of Alimburch [Wellingborough?]. The English king from a tower in the city of Warwick could see the Moors devastating the land and slaying his Christian people, both men and women. Dark despair came over him. He could not bear this sight, but came down from the tower and retired to a small chamber where he lamented and prayed. In his great affliction, he bowed his head upon the bed, and presently it seemed to him that a beautiful lady in white, with a child in her arms, entered the chamber. She was attended by many other ladies who were chanting the “Magnificat.” When the singing ceased, the Lady approached him, and, placing her hand on his head, she said: “Fear not, O King; have confidence; the Son and the Mother will help you in your great tribulation. As a sign of peace, kiss on the mouth the first man with a long beard whom you shall see, and who will ask you for alms. Request him to lay aside his garment, and make him captain of all your forces.” When the king opened his eyes the vision had vanished, but the dream had been so vivid that he could not forget it. The next morning the hermit, William of Warwick, while gathering herbs, saw the Moorish forces overrunning all the surrounding country, and sought refuge in the city of Warwick. He went to the castle to ask the Countess for alms, and there met the king, whom he immediately approached. He knelt down before him and asked for charity. The king, bidding him arise, kissed him on the mouth and led him into a room of the castle, where he asked him to put aside his penitent garb and to take up arms. The hermit at first declined, but finally agreed to yield to the wishes of the king, since he would be taking up arms to defend Christianity and to spread the Holy Catholic faith. (Chaps. 5-10) In his travels in the East the hermit had learned to make certain grenades which would burn and which no water could extinguish. For several days he was busy making some of these. One day he informed the king he was ready to carry out a plan by which he hoped to deal a severe blow to the enemy. That night he disguised himself as a Moor and, carrying a number of grenades, reached the camp of the invaders. He set fire to the camp, and while the infidels were trying to extinguish the fire, the English came out of the city and attacked them. Many Moors were slain, and the rest fled in disorder to the castle of Alimburch. (Chaps. 10- 12) From this place, the great King of Canary sent ambassadors to the English king with a letter in which he proposed that, to avoid further bloodshed, the two kings should engage in mortal combat. If the Moorish king should be the victor, the English king was to recognize him as his lord and pay a heavy tribute every year. If, on the other hand, the English king should win, then the Moors were to return to their own land, and England should again enjoy peace. This proposal was immediately accepted by the English sovereign. (Chaps. 13-14) Then the King of England convened the General Council to deliberate over the matter. The hermit was first asked to give his advice. He suggested that since the Moorish king was a strong and hardy man, and the English king young and feeble, some one who was more likely to win over such a formidable adversary should fight in place of England’s king. Moreover, he proposed that the Duke of Lancaster, the uncle of the king, should be the person to represent him in the combat. But immediately three dukes, the Duke of Gloucester, the Duke [9] [10] [11] of Bedford, and the Duke of Exeter, protested loudly that, since they were more closely related to the king, the honor of representing him should devolve upon them. But the king was unwilling that any one should fight in his place. However, he was finally persuaded that this should be done, and he yielded only on condition that he be permitted to name the substitute, to whom he also intended to surrender the royal crown and scepter. He nominated the hermit, who wished to decline, but was finally induced to put on the royal robes. The regal power was then conferred upon him in the presence of a notary. Arms were brought, from which he was to select those that he preferred. But he chose none of these. He asked that the arms of William of Warwick be obtained from the Countess. The latter sent certain arms, but they were not the ones that he wanted. Those that he desired were kept in the chamber of the Countess. The astonished lady gave the hermit permission to enter her chamber, and he there equipped himself for the coming combat. (Chaps. 14-19) The hermit-king spent all that night in the church, kneeling before the altar, upon which he had placed his arms. After mass the next morning he ate to strengthen his body and then armed himself for the fight. Finally the adversaries met, and the fighting was fast and furious. Suddenly the hermit-king cut off one of his opponent’s arms, and a few moments later, his head. England’s champion had won, and great was the rejoicing among the Christians. (Chap. 19) The next day the English sent ambassadors to the infidels to request them to leave the country, as had been stipulated in the agreement made before the combat took place, but the Moors in great wrath cut off the heads of these ambassadors. They put the heads in a sack and sent them back to the English. The hermit-king was astounded when this cruel and treacherous deed was reported to him, and he made a solemn vow never to go under any roof except that of the church to hear mass, until he had driven the whole Moorish tribe out of the kingdom. And he ordered that all male subjects of the crown over the age of eleven years and under seventy should take up arms to fight the invaders. (Chaps. 19-20) When the Countess learned that her son, who was barely eleven years old, would be obliged to fight the Moors, she became frantic. She implored the hermit-king to permit her to keep her son, the only comfort of her life, but he would not yield to her entreaties. And when the boy himself expressed an eagerness to go against the enemy, she realized that all her petitions would be in vain, and, with despair in her heart, she gave the lad her blessing. (Chaps. 20-22) The hermit-king gathered his forces and led them out upon a plain before the city, and there they established their camp. Around it a high wall was thrown up. An opening was left on one side and there caltrops were placed and pitfalls were dug. When the Moors attacked the camp, they were slaughtered in great numbers. Finally they began to retreat. The Christians followed them and killed many more in the pursuit. The young son of the Countess slew a doughty Moor, and the king, after dubbing him, threw him upon the slain Saracen, so that the boy’s hands and face became covered with blood. That was the lad’s baptism of blood. (Chaps. 24-25) After this disastrous defeat the Moors again returned to the castle of Alimburch. The English made an assault upon this stronghold and succeeded in setting it on fire. The infidels were obliged to come out, and all that emerged were slain, while all the rest that were found in the kingdom were put to death. The victorious English then marched to Dantona, threw into the sea all the Moors that they encountered there, and destroyed all the ships in which they had come. (Chap. 25) When peace and order were again established on the island of England, the hermit-king decided to make himself known to the Countess, and in order that he might be free to return to his hermitage and his penitential life, he purposed to restore the kingdom to the former sovereign. (Chap. 26) Accordingly, he sent a chamberlain with the half-ring to the Countess. The messenger said to her: “He who has loved you with infinite love, and who still loves you, sends you this ring.” She took it and was startled. She hurried to her chamber, where she said a short prayer. Then she opened the jewel-case and took a ring from it. She placed one of the rings on top of the other, and behold they fitted together perfectly and the escutcheons were complete. All perturbed and excited, she rushed towards the door, but before she was able to reach it, she fell to the floor in a swoon. The chamberlain hurried to the king and announced that the Countess had fallen dead. The king hurried to her room. Doctors were already there trying to revive her. Finally she recovered her senses, arose, and threw herself on her knees before the king, who raised her up from the floor and embraced her and kissed her many times. Then he announced that he was the Earl of Warwick. And when the people generally knew that the hermit-king was their own William of Warwick, there was great rejoicing. All the nobility went to the church with the reunited couple and offered up to heaven infinite praise and thanks. Then, in a triumphant procession, they returned to the [12] [13] [14] castle, where a sumptuous banquet was served. (Chap. 26) Nine days later there arrived four hundred carts laden with gold and silver, all of which had been taken from the Moors. The Duke of Bedford, the Duke of Gloucester, the Earl of Salisbury, and the Earl of Stafford were put in charge of this immense treasure. A meeting of the General Council was ordered for the next day. (Chap. 26) At this council the earl gave instructions concerning the distribution of the booty, and restored to the former ruler the crown, scepter, and royal robes. He himself immediately put on again the garb of the Franciscan order. The reinstated king begged him to remain at his court. He offered him the principality of Wales, but he would not accept it. All the members of the council besought him to stay, but he answered that he must return to serve God. When the king realized that he could not induce him to dwell amongst them, he gave half of the kingdom of Cornwall to the earl’s son, to whom was also granted the privilege of wearing an iron crown. The hermit gave thanks to the king for the gift and the honors bestowed on his son, and then bade farewell to His Majesty and his court. He went to a small villa in his county, where he remained several days. The king sent him thirty carts loaded with the most precious things contained in the booty captured from the Moors, but he refused to accept any of it. When the king left the city of Warwick he sent for the earl’s son, and, at the city gate, he appointed him Grand Constable of all England. Then the king departed for London. (Chap. 27) The Countess visited her husband, the hermit, in the villa, and finally persuaded him to have a hermitage built, which was to consist of a church, with an apartment on each side of it, one for him and the other for her. After its completion, and just about the time that they were going to live there, the Earl of Northumberland came to them as an ambassador of the king. His mission was to request the noble couple to come to London. The king was going to marry the daughter of the King of France, and was anxious that the Countess should instruct the queen in the practices and customs of England. The hermit replied that he must keep the vow that he had made to serve God, but he should be very happy if the Countess would be willing to go. And the Countess, moved by the wish of her husband and by a sense of duty to her sovereign lord, expressed her willingness to comply with the king’s request. And thus, William of Warwick and his wife were again separated; she went to London, and he entered the new hermitage, which stood in a dense grove, in which there was a clear spring, whose waters flowed with a gentle murmur through the flowers and green grasses of a beautiful meadow. And every day after the hermit had finished his hours he would come out under a beautiful pine tree that stood in the center of this meadow, to watch the animals that came to drink from this crystal spring. (Chap. 27) The King of England, in order to keep his people well-trained in the use of arms, and to celebrate his approaching marriage in a befitting manner, announced that a General Court would be held in London at which many exercises of arms should take place. The announcement of the great festivities which the king was preparing was spread throughout all the Christian lands. Now it happened that a young nobleman from Brittany started on his way to attend the great event, and with him several other youths. And as they were riding along, he dropped somewhat behind the others, and, being weary from the long journey, fell asleep. His steed, instead of following the company, took a path which led to the crystal spring where the hermit was reading a book entitled Arbre de Batalles. When the horse came to the spring, it lowered its head to drink, and this movement awakened the rider, who opened his eyes and saw before him the white-bearded hermit. Quickly dismounting, he bowed to him. The hermit received him kindly, and asked his name, and why he had come to that deserted place. The youth answered: “My father is Lord of the March of Tirania, and my mother’s name is Blancha; therefore it has pleased them to call me Tirant lo Blanch.” He then related that he and several young noblemen were on their way to attend the General Court which the English king had announced and at which those who wished to become knights would have an opportunity to realize their ambition. When he had said this, the hermit grew pensive and, when asked wherefore, replied that he was thinking of knighthood and the duties and obligations of knights. Young Tirant then begged him to tell about the order of knighthood. The hermit read to him a chapter from the Arbre de Batalles, which was a kind of treatise on the order of chivalry. And he explained the origin of chivalry; its noble purpose; the significance of the arms and the different parts of armor; how a knight who has disgraced the order is degraded; and he named some of the great knights of olden times. When asked who were the best knights of England at that very time, he mentioned the names of the good knight Muntanyanegre, the Duke of Exeter, and Sir John Stuart. Tirant, disappointed at this answer, asked why he did not make mention of the Earl William of Warwick, who had won so many battles in France and Italy, and in many other countries; who had saved the life of the Countess of Belestar, accused of adultery by her husband and her three sons; who had snatched a child away from a lion and returned it to its mother; and who vanquished the [15] [16] [17] Moors in England and liberated many English captives. The hermit replied that he had heard of William of Warwick, but having never seen him he did not mention his name. (Chaps. 28- 38) While Tirant was receiving instructions in knighthood from the hermit, his companions were traveling on, and, although he would gladly have remained longer, it was necessary to depart if he did not wish to travel to London alone. The hermit bade him farewell, and gave him the book. He invited Tirant to visit him on his return, and the invitation was accepted. Then the young aspirant for the honors of knighthood resumed his journey to London. Some of his companions, when they missed him, turned back, and when they found him, he was riding along reading the book. The company of young men arrived in London a few days before the beginning of the festivities. (Chap. 39) The feast of St. John was the wedding day of the king, and on that day began the festivities of the General Court. The celebration continued for a year and a day. Then the visitors took leave of the king and the queen, and returned to their respective homes. Tirant, remembering his promise, stopped at the hermitage with his companions. They were embraced one by one by the venerable man, and then they sat down with him on the grass underneath the large pine tree. At the request of the hermit, Tirant described the principal events that had taken place at London. He told of the generous hospitality of the king; of the great procession when the king went out of the city to meet his betrothed; of the manner in which the exercises of arms were conducted; and of the splendor and merriment at the royal nuptials. He spoke also of those who essayed their skill in knightly combats, praising highly the Duke of Aygues Vives, the Duke of Cleves, and the brother of the Duke of Burgundy. But the contest that he admired most of all was the one in which a youth who did not seem to be more than fourteen or fifteen years old took part. This youthful knight was called the Grand Constable of England. His mother and the king, too, had forbidden him to participate in any of the combats. But he came to Tirant and asked him for permission to use his arms and steed. He begged so well that Tirant was unable to refuse. In this contest the youth slew the Senyor de Escala Rompuda. The king chided him for having entered the lists without permission, but the young Constable answered that it was not right that he should be denied the privilege of following the footsteps of his valiant father, William, Earl of Warwick. The Countess sent for Tirant and begged him never again to do anything that might cause her to lose the only joy and comfort that she had in this life. And he promised that he would never willingly put the life of her son in jeopardy. (Chaps. 39-57) The hermit had already twice asked who had been declared the best and greatest knight among the victors. But Tirant seemed to pay no attention to his questions. And finally the hermit said: “But, Tirant, why do you not answer my question?” Then arose one of the company and his name was Diaphebus. He drew forth a parchment saying that the document in his hands would answer the question. This he read to the hermit, who was delighted when he heard that it was a proclamation to the world that the noble and valiant Tirant lo Blanch was declared the best knight of all those that had taken part in the exercises of arms at the festivities connected with the General Court. It also contained the instructions given by the king that Tirant should be placed on a white steed and that all, walking with the king, should escort the hero to the church of Saint George, where a solemn high mass would be celebrated in honor of this most excellent knight. The document was signed by “Rex Enricus,” and by judges of the field, heralds, and the great lords in attendance. (Chaps. 57-58) After the reading of the document, the hermit asked Diaphebus to tell of some of Tirant’s exploits, whereupon our hero withdrew from the company to busy himself with giving orders for the putting up of the tents and the preparation of supper. Diaphebus then related how Tirant was the first person upon whom the honor of knighthood was conferred, and the first one to engage in combat with one of the champions of the field. In this contest, which was fought on horseback, he slew his adversary. Then he challenged another champion of the field to a combat à outrance on foot. In this he succeeded in striking his opponent to the ground. Not wishing to take his life, he asked the fallen knight to beg for mercy, but the latter answered that he was the Caualler de Muntalt, knighted by the Earl of Warwick, loved and feared by many, and tha...