Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page i Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM THEORIES OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION Eleventh Edition Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page ii Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page iii Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM THEORIES OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION Eleventh Edition Stephen W. Littlejohn University of New Mexico Karen A. Foss University of New Mexico John G. Oetzel University of Waikato WAVELAND PRESS, INC. Long Grove, Illinois Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page iv Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM For information about this book, contact: Waveland Press, Inc. 4180 IL Route 83, Suite 101 Long Grove, IL 60047-9580 (847) 634-0081 [email protected] www.waveland.com Cover photo: Stephen W. Littlejohn Copyright © 2017 by Waveland Press, Inc. 10-digit ISBN 1-4786-3405-7 13-digit ISBN 978-1-4786-3405-8 All rights reserved. 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Printed in the United States of America 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page v Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM Contents Prologue xi PART ONE Foundations 1 Foundations of Communication Theory 3 Defining Communication 4 The Academic Study of Communication 5 The Idea of Theory 7 Dimensions of Theory 7 Philosophical Assumptions 8 Concepts 12 Explanations 13 Principles 14 Evaluating Communication Theory 14 Theoretical Scope 15 Appropriateness 15 Heuristic Value 15 Validity 16 Parsimony 16 Openness 16 So What Makes a Good Theory? 16 Our Theoretical Standpoint 17 Looking Forward 18 NOTES 20 2 Frameworks for Organizing Theories 25 Paradigms of Inquiry 26 The Nature of Social Science 26 The Nature of Society 27 Four Paradigms 28 v Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page vi Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM vi Contents Discourses of Communication 30 Axes and Quadrants 31 Discursive Orientations 32 Communication Tiers 35 Tier One 36 Tier Two 37 Tier Three 38 Tier Four 39 Traditions of Communication Theory 40 The Semiotic Tradition 41 The Phenomenological Tradition 41 The Cybernetic Tradition 42 The Sociopsychological Tradition 42 The Sociocultural Tradition 43 The Critical Tradition 43 The Rhetorical Tradition 44 Conclusion 45 NOTES 45 PART TWO Elements of the Communication Model 3 The Communicator 51 Biophysiological Theories 51 Trait Theories 52 Embodiment 54 Cognitive and Information Processing Theories 56 Attribution and Judgment 56 Information-Integration 61 Consistency Theories 64 Communication Competence 71 Interaction Adaptation Theory 71 Expectancy Violations Theory 72 Theory of Communication Competence 74 Identity Theories 75 Symbolic Interaction and Self as a Social Object 76 Presentation of Self 77 Cultural Identity Theory 78 Identity Negotiation Theory 79 Standpoint Theory 81 Queer Theory 83 Agency 85 Agency as Protean 87 Agency as Contradiction 88 Constricted and Constructed Potentiality 89 Conclusion 91 NOTES 94 Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page vii Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM Contents vii 4 The Message 101 Semiotics 101 Structural Linguistics 103 Nonverbal Communication 105 Interpretation 110 Phenomenology 110 Distanciation 112 Linguistic Relativity 114 Language and Gender 115 Social Construction 117 Constructivism 119 Production, Use, and Strategy 120 Speech Act Theory 121 Coordinated Management of Meaning 124 Theory of Identification 127 Message-Design Logic 130 Compliance Gaining 131 Goals-Plans-Actions Model 131 Politeness Theory 133 Invitational Rhetoric 136 Conclusion 138 NOTES 140 5 The Medium 145 The Medium and Production 146 Medium Theory 146 New Medium Theory 148 Media Ecology and Mediatization 151 Media and Cultural Production 154 Content and Effects 157 The Effects Tradition 157 Cultivation Theory 159 Agenda Setting Theory 161 Media Framing Theory 165 Motivations, Uses, and Consumption 167 Transportation 167 Spiral of Silence 169 Social Action Media Studies 171 Uses and Gratifications Theory 174 Media and Channel Use Theories 176 Conclusion 179 NOTES 181 6 Beyond Human Communication 187 Communication between Humans and Nature 189 Naturalizing Culture 190 The Materiality of Nature 192 The Othering of Nature 193 Animate Rhetoric 194 Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page viii Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM viii Contents Communication between Humans and Objects 195 Actor Network Theory 195 The Revenge of the Crystal 198 Communication between Humans and Technology 200 Media Equation Theory 201 Media Dependency Theory 203 Digital Play and Media Transference 205 Media Transformation 208 Communication between Humans and the Divine 210 Prayer as Rhetoric 211 Relational Prayer Theory 213 Conclusion 216 NOTES 218 PART THREE Contexts of Communication 7 The Relationship 223 Boundaries and Connections 224 Communication Privacy Management Theory 224 Affection Exchange Theory 228 Dyadic Power Theory 229 Family Communication Patterns Theory 231 Queering Family Communication 235 Constructing and Transcending Difference 237 Moral Conflict Theory 237 Performing Foreignness 239 Theory of Coalition and Alliance Building 241 Dialogue as Building a Culture of Peace 243 Tensions and Challenges 245 Relational Dialectics Theory 245 Identity Management Theory 249 Theories of Relational Maintenance 252 Interpersonal Deception Theory 255 Conclusion 257 NOTES 259 8 The Group 263 Foundational Approaches 263 Interaction-Process Analysis 264 Interaction Analysis and Group Development 265 Input-Process-Output Model 268 Symbolic Convergence Theory 270 Littlejohn et al 11E.book Page ix Wednesday, November 16, 2016 1:09 PM Contents ix Group Context 272 Effective Intercultural Workgroup Communication Theory 273 Concertive Control and Self-Managed Teams 277 Bona Fide Group Perspective 279 Adaptive Structuration Theory 282 Group Process and Effectiveness 285 Simplified Model of Social Influence Process 285 Socio-Egocentric and Group-Centric Model 287 Transactive Memory Theory 289 Groupthink Theory 292 Vigilant Interaction Theory 295 Conclusion 297 NOTES 298 9 The Organization 303 Organizing and Structuring 303 Theory of Organizing 304 Structuration Theory and the Four Flows Model 306 Montreal School Approach to Communicative Constitution of Organizations 310 Network Theory 313 Organizational Culture 316 Control and Resistance 319 Theory of Bureaucracy 320 Organizational Control Theory and Organizational Identification 321 Discourse of Suspicion 325 Corporate Colonization Theory 327 Feminist Theory in Organizational Communication 329 External Stakeholder Communication 333 Situational Crisis Communication Theory 333 Corporate Social Responsibility Communication Model 336 Fully Functional Society Theory 338 Conclusion 340 NOTES 342 10 Health Contexts 347 Messages and Behavior Change 348 Narrative Theory and Health 348 Entertainment Education 351 Extended Parallel Process Model 353 Inoculation Theory 356 Relationships 359 Theory of Normative Social Influence 359 Social Support Theory 362 Patient-Centered Communication 364 Structurational Divergence Theory 366 Managing Information and Risk 368 Risk Perception Attitude Framework 369 Theory of Motivated Information Management 371 Risk and Crisis Communication Management Theory 373