THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT ACCORDING TO THE SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA Fr. Tadros Y. Malaty Introduction Studying the thoughts of the School of Alexandria, especially during the period of the first five centuries helps us to attain the divine grace of the Holy Trinity and practice the unity with the Father in the Son through the work of the Holy Spirit. It reveals how the early Church understands the Holy Scriptures, Christianizes the Hellenic culture, and faces heresies. Schools of Alexandria Long before the establishment of Christianity in Alexandria, the city was famous for its many schools. By far, the largest school was the "Museum," which was founded by Ptolemy and became the most famous school in the East. In addition, there were the "Serapeum" and the "Sebastion." Each of these three schools had its own huge library1. Justo L. Gonzalez states that the Museum's library, whose directors were among the most remarkable scholars of the world, grew to the point where it housed 700,000 volumes, making it an arsenal of knowledge that was astounding for its time. The Museum, as its name proclaims, was dedicated to the Muses, and was a sort of university in which the most distinguished writers, scientists, and philosophers gathered and worked. Largely because of these institutions, Alexandria soon became famous as a rich center of knowledge2. Numerous Jewish schools were also scattered everywhere3. The geographical position of Alexandria gave a special flavor to the thought that developed in the city.Also, the intellectual work produced in Alexandria was precisely of the type for which the world was athirst. The ancient Greeks, who saw in it a mysterious land, pregnant with hidden wisdom, had admired Egypt. Moreover, all the various doctrines emanating from the East converged in Alexandria where they formed an eclectic mass... Jews with their Scriptures were not the only ones who had come to Alexandria, but Babylonians had also come with their astrology, as well as Persians with their dualism, and many others with different and often confused religions4. In brief, Alexandria, the cosmopolitan city, was chosen as a home for learning5, and a unique center of a brilliant intellectual life6, where Egyptian, Greek 1 C. Bigg: Christian Platonists of Alexandria, Oxford, 1913, p. 26. 2 Justo L. Gonzalez: A History of Christian Thought, Abingdon Nashville, Parthenon Press 1970, p. 186-7. 3 Philo claims that there were at his time at least one million Jews (Flac. 43). The Jewish community of Alexandria in the Hellenistic-Roman period was the largest and most important of the Greek-speaking Diaspora. (Birger A. Pearson: The Roots of Egyptian Christianity {Studies in Antiquity & Christianity}, Philadelphia, Fortress Press 1992, p. 145. 4 Justo L. Gonzalez: A History of Christian Thought, , Abingdon Nashville, , Parthenon Press 1970, p. 186-7. 5 H. M. Gwatkin: Early Church History, London 1909, vol. 2, p.155. 6 J. Lebreton : Hist. of the Primitive Church, London, Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd, 1949, vol. 3, p. 731. and Jewish cultures together with eastern mystic thoughts were nourished and gave rise to a new civilization. In such an environment, there was no alternative but to establish a Christian institution7 to enable the church to face the battle, which was waged by these powerful schools. It is highly probable that there were well educated Christians in Alexandria in the apostolic times. In the Acts of the Apostles (18:24 ff.), St. Luke tells of Apollos who was a learned Jew of Alexandria and mighty in the scriptures; he may well have learnt there the knowledge of Jesus that he possessed before he met Aquilla and Priscilla. The Christian School And Its Development St. Jerome records that St. Mark himself founded the Christian School of Alexandria. He was inspired by the Holy Spirit to establish it to teach Christianity, as this was the only way to give the new religion a solid foundation in the city8. The School became the oldest center for sacred sciences in the history of Christianity9. In it, the first system of Christian theology was formed and the allegorical method of biblical exegesis was devised. In this context, Dom. D. Rees states, "The most renowned intellectual institution in the early Christian world was undoubtedly the Catechetical School (Didascaleion) of Alexandria, and its primary concern was the study of the Bible, giving its name to an influential tradition of scriptural interpretation. The preoccupation of this school of exegesis was to discover everywhere the spiritual sense underlying the written word of the Scripture10." Origen describes the catechist’s functions in more than one of his books. He had both to teach doctrine11and to give instructions on the Christian life. "If you want to receive Baptism," Origen says12, "you must first learn about God's Word, cut away the roots of your vices, and correct your barbarous wild lives and practice meekness and humility. Then you will be fit to receive the grace of the Holy Spirit." Bardy has suggested that we are dealing with a philosophical school rather than a catechetical school. But, as Mehat has pointed out, catechesis is not merely a simple matter of baptismal instruction. J. Ferguson states that he does not find the two (catechetical and philosophical) incompatible13. By the second century it became quite influential on church life as can be seen from the following: 1. It was able to satisfy the thirst of the Alexandrian Christians for religious knowledge, encourage higher studies and create research work in a variety of fields. Joseph Wilson Trigg says,[Alexandria was thus easily the greatest intellectual center of the Roman Empire when Origen lived there. We have Alexandria to thank for Origen's compelling intellectual drive and his astonishingly wide interests.] Origen, SCM Press, 1985, p. 7. 7 De Viris Illustribus 36. 8 Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate: St. Mark and the Coptic Church, Cairo, 1968, p. 61. 9 Johnnes Quasten: Patrology, Spectrum Publishers, 1966, vol. 2. 10 Nelson : A New Catholic Comm. on the Holy Scripture, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1969, p. 15. 11 Against Celsus 3:15; Jean Daniélou: Origen, NY, 1955, p. 10. 12 In Leirt. hom 11:3. 13 John Ferguson : Clement of Alexandria, Twayne Publishers, NY 1974, p. 15. 2. It gave birth to numerous spiritual and well-known church leaders along the years. Many of which deserved to sit on the throne of St. Mark. 3. Through its missionary zeal, it was able to win many souls to Christianity from Egypt and abroad. 4. In a true ecumenical spirit, it attracted students from other nations, many of who became leaders and bishops in their own churches. 5. It established a common awareness of the importance of education as a basic element in religious structure. 6. It offered the world the first systematic theological studies. Its deans did not interfere in the administration of the Church. 7. It used philosophy as a weapon in dealing with pagan philosophers, and thus beating them by their own game14. Its Program It would have been a grave error to have confined the School's activities to theology15. Its teaching was encyclopedic; first presenting the whole series of profane sciences, and then rising to moral and religious philosophy, and finally to Christian theology, as set forth in the form of commentaries on the sacred books. This encyclopedic conception of teaching was an Alexandrian tradition, for it was also found in Alexandrian pagan and Jewish schools. From St. Clement's trilogy, consisting of his chief three works: Protrepticus (An Exhortation to the Heathen), Paidagogos (the Educator), and Stromata (Miscellanies), which broadly outlined the School's program at his time, we may conclude that three courses were available: 1. A special course for non-Christians, which introduced candidates to principles of Christianity. 2. A course on Christian morals. 3. An advanced course on divine wisdom and sufficient knowledge for the spiritual Christian. Worship went side by side with study in the School16. Teachers and students practiced prayer, fasting and diverse ways of asceticism. In addition to continence in food and drink, they were also continent in earthly possessions17. In purity and integrity their lives were exemplary. Celibacy was a recommended ideal, and was observed by many. The Characteristics of Alexandrian Theology Besides the main Alexandrian views on allegorism, philosophy, and knowledge (gnosis), of which I prefer to speak in separate chapters, the School of Alexandria had the following characteristics. I. Deification (The Grace Of Renewal)18 14 Douglas: Dict. of the Christian Churches, p. 26; 15 Atiya: Hist. of Eastern Church, p. 33; Mourad Kamel: Coptic Church, p. 36. 16 J. Lebreton, p. 732. 17 Coptic Patriarchate: St. Mark, p 63. 18 Fr. T. Malaty: The Divine Grace, Alexandria, 1992, 30 ff. Many scholars see the core of Alexandrian theology as Deification or the grace of renewal. By deification the Alexandrians mean the renewal of human nature as a whole, to attain sharing in the characteristics of our Lord Jesus Christ in place of the corrupt human nature, or as the apostles state that the believer may enjoy "the partaking in the divine nature" (2 Peter 1:4), or the new man in the image of His Creator (Col. 3:10). Alexandrian theology can be summarized by these words: "God took our humanity, that man may share His life." St. Clement of Alexandria says, “The Word of God, became man just that you may learn from a Man how it may be that man should become god19.” Joseph Sittler stated that the East and West have different ways of speaking about the work of Christ. In the West, that work is centered upon redemption from sin; in the East, it is centered upon the divinization of man. The doctrine of atonement is central to that work in the West. In contrast, in the East the central doctrine is participation, illumination, re-enactment, and transformation. In the West, the work is reunification. The Western Savior is the Eastern Pantocrator20. Ii. Oneness Of Life The School of Alexandria reveals to us the oneness of life in Christ. The dean and his students did not isolate the study of religion, philosophy and science from their church life nor from their daily life. They believed in one (integral) life in Christ. This was revealed in their study, worship, behavior, preaching and witnessing to Christ. The deans and students were mostly virgins who devoted their lives to Christ. They lived as scholars and at the same time as true worshippers, ascetics and preachers. They were eager to devote their lives, contemplating on God through their study of the Bible, without ignoring their role in witnessing to Christ and serving Him.. Iii. Soteriological Theology St. Mark who used the healing of Arianius' wound - when a needle pierced his hand while repairing St. Mark's shoe - in the name of Jesus Christ as a starting point to preach the Gospel, did not reveal God as a mere idea he believed in, but as the Savior who redeems mankind. This is the basic principle of the Alexandrian theology until today. We know God, not through theoretical discussions, but through His redeeming deeds. God grants us new knowledge, new glorious life and immortality. This is clear in the theology of St. Clement of Alexandria who usually in- troduces Jesus Christ as the "Educator." He wrote a book called Paidagogos "The Educator." He speaks of this Divine Paidagogue as the "All-healing physician of mankind21.'' In other words, divine knowledge, to St. Clement, cannot be separated from our salvation. He clearly believes "It is the will of God that we should attain the knowledge of God, which is the communication of immortality22.” “The Word ... became Man so that you might learn from Man how man may become god23." 19 Protrepticus 1:8:4. 20 Essays on Nature and Grace, Philadelphia 1972, p.52. 21 St. Clement: Paidagogos, Book 1, Ch. 2. Section 6. 22 Stromata: 4:6:27. 23 Protrep. 1:8:4. IV. Penance And Repentance In a papyrus fragment on repentance, St. Dionysius argues against severity toward apostates: "Let us then not repel those who return, but gladly welcome them and number them with those who have not strayed, and thus supply that which is wanting in them24." V. Theological Terms Many modern scholars look to Origen as the first theologian. His work De Principiis ("On First Principles") is perhaps the greatest of Origen works and marks a long step towards the formation of Christian theology. Concerning theological terms, the Alexandrian School uses Greek philosophical terms to explain Christian doctrines, because of the existing worldwide Greek culture, and in order to deal with the philosophers and heretics. But the Alexandrians were not enslaved to these terms. This is what St. Athanasius explains when he states that disputes merely about words must not be suffered to divide those who think alike25. VI. Definitions Of Theological Terminology The Alexandrian Fathers did not give definitions to any theological terminology, because they were interested only in the practice of theology in their worship and daily life. Benjamin Drewery could not find a direct definition to the grace of God through the numerous works of Origen. He deduced it stating, "We may suggest that if Origen had been required to offer a formal definition of grace, he would have responded somewhat as follows: 'Grace is the power of God freely, but not unconditionally, placed at man's disposal, whereby He appropriates through the Holy Spirit the offer of salvation to a new and ultimate life, revealed and enacted in the Scriptures, by the Incarnate Jesus Christ, and made available by Him to the world26.'" VII. Ecumenical Spirit Ecumenicism is a spirit that the School of Alexandria spread not by speaking about the unity of churches all over the world but by practicing it in many ways: a. The School attracted many foreign students to study theology, especially the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. Those students later became leaders in their churches. This created a kind of inner unity based on the word of God. b. The deans of the School were very active outside Egypt, because of their love towards the universal church; they were not looking for any personal prestige nor gaining any political power for their church. For example Origen traveled to Rome, Caesarea, Arabia, Tyre, etc. c. The Alexandrian theologians were leaders and pioneers in the ecumenical councils. 24 Vivian, p. 165; Feltoe: St. Dionysius, p. 62; St. Dionysius: Letters, p. p. 62-64. 25 Quod non sint tres de ( That They are not three Gods ). 26 Fr. T. Malaty: The Terms: Physis & Hypostasis in the early church, Alexandria, 1987, p. 4. d. The Coptic manuscripts witness that the Copts translated almost all the Christian literature existing in the world at that time. The Allegorical Interpretation Of The Scriptures Allegorism was well established in Alexandrian Judaism, especially by Philo27, who made a systematic use of it to bridge the chasm between the Old Testament revelation and the Platonic philosophy. Philo compares the literal sense of Scripture to the shadow, which the body casts, finding its authentic, profounder truth in the spiritual meaning which it symbolizes28. He does not want to depreciate or abolish the literal or the historical meaning, but looks to it as man’s body which merits the fullest respect29, although the soul is more precious than the body. St. Clement of Alexandria is considered the first Christian theologian (writer) who uses allegorical interpretation, giving a cause of using it in a practical way. He says that the Bible has hidden meanings to incite us to search and discover the words of salvation, which are hidden from those who despise them. ALLEGORY AND TYPOLOGY The word "allegory," is derived from the Greek "alla," meaning "other," and "agoreuo," meaning, "proclaim." It originally referred to a figure of speech that Cicero defined as a "continuous stream of metaphors30." The word “type,” τυποι in Greek has its basic meaning, ‘something struck out; a print, impression of a seal.’ The seal is the New Testament event, which has struck out a prophetic impression of itself in the pages of the Old Testament31. Allegory And Typology In The New Testament Jean Daniélou also says, “The typology of the Fathers is based on the continuity which exists between the Old and New Testaments32. The term “allegory” is used by St. Paul in Gal. 4:24, "which things contain an allegory." Some scholars believe that he introduces the allegorical interpretation of the Law by the question "Is it for the oxen that God cares, or says He altogether for our sake?" (1 Cor. 9:10) does not necessarily mean that Paul, besides abolishing this particular law with his advocacy of the abrogation of the Law as a whole, also denies that this law was ever meant to be taken literally33. In the New Testament, we have four kinds of non-literal interpretations of Old Testament texts: 27 Philo (c. 20 BC.- c. AD. 50), the Jewish thinker and exegete in whom that literature flourished also lived in Alexandria. He belonged to a prosperous priestly family of Alexandria, and was firmly convinced that the teaching of the Old Testament could be combined with Greek speculation. His philosophy of religion embodies such a synthesis.( Esmat Gabriel: St. Clement of Alexandria, Coptic Church Review, Spring 1980, v.1, No. 1, p. 22.) 28 De confus. ling. 190. 29 De. migrat. Abrah. 89-93; J.N.D. Kelly: Early Christian Doctrines, 1978, p. 9. 30 Orator 27.94; Everett Ferguson: Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, N.Y, 990, p. 23. 31 John MacQueen: Allegory, Methuen & Co, 1970, p. 20. 32 Jean Daniélou: From Shadows to Reality, Studies in the Biblical Typology of the Fathers, p. 69. 33 Cf. M. Guttmann, Das Judentum und seine Umwelt, I, p. 252; Harry Austryn Wolfson: The Philosophy of the Church Fathers, Harvard University Press, 1976, p.42. 1. Interpretations dealing with predictions of the first coming of Christ. 2. Interpretations dealing with predictions of the second coming of Christ. 3. Interpretations dealing with the pre-existence of Christ. 4. Interpretations dealing with legal or moral matters. Allegory And Typology In The Early Church34 J. Daniélou35 states that primitive Christian tradition recognized two senses of Scripture, namely the literal and the typological. The latter is in reality a "Charistic," or "Christological" sense, having Christ in His totality as its object. He also states that there have been at least five kinds of typological sense in early Christian literature36: 1. Typology that aims at discovering the circumstances of Christ's earthly life in the Old Testament. This type of exegesis serves to characterize the Western tradition. 2. Typology, common to all the Fathers, which does not therefore bear distinctive marks of any particular current, scrutinizes the Old Testament with a view to discovering Christ there, not in the exterior circumstances of His earthly life, but in the mysteries which He came to accomplish. 3. Typology that concentrates on those features of the Old Testament which are figures of the Church's sacramental life; it is found in the sacramental catches and is particularly dear to the School of Antioch. 4. Typology which searches in the Old Testament for figures of the role that Christ plays in the souls of believers; it is in Alexandria that this typology is cultivated with special predilection. For this reason some scholars call the School of Alexandria, "the School of the Souls37." This does not mean that the Alexandrian school ignored the sanctification of the body, but it concentrates on the ascent of the souls by the Holy Spirit to the heavenly life while the believer still lives in this world, through the study of the Bible and worshipping God in his daily life. 5. Eschatological typology aims at discovering the traits of the Old Testament in realizing the vestiges of Christ's glorious manifestation at the end of time. Daniélou notes that writers of Jewish apocalyptic literature favor this form of interpretation, without giving to it a Christological signification. Allegory And Typology According to St. Clement of Alexandria St. Clement of Alexandria believes that the Bible resembles the Virgin Mary who brought forth Jesus Christ and her virginity was preserved. Thus we discover the spiritual meanings of the Bible verses, while keeping its meaning, for it still encloses many other spiritual meanings. However, one must be careful not to exaggerate St. Clement's proneness to allegorism, for he tries not to abandon the historical sense of 34 Everett Ferguson: Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, N.Y., Garland Publishing Inc., 990, p. 24. 35 J. Daniélou: L' Unite des deux testaments dans l'oeuvre d'Origene (Revue de Sciences religieuses, 22 - 1948-p. 45); Alexander Kerrigan: St. Cyril of Alexandria, Interpreter of the Old Testament, Rome, 1952, p.26 ff. 36 Cf. J. Daniélou: Les vivers sens de l'Ecrriture dans la radition chretienne primitive (Ephemerides theologicae Lovanienses, 24), p. 120-125. 37 Brian E. Daley: The Hope of the Early Church, Cambridge University, 1991, p. 44. Scripture, as has often been done by some allegorical interpreters. St. Clement says once and again that the Scriptures do have a literal historical sense38. St. Clement of Alexandria distinguishes between literal, mystical, moral, and prophetic interpretations. C. Mondésert states that meditating on the text of the Scripture, St. Clement discovers at least five senses: a historical sense; a doctrinal sense; a prophetic signification; a philosophical sense; and a mystical sense39. Allegory And Typology According to Origen Allegory is developed and carried to excess by Origen. He believes that the Logos, the heavenly Groom, is re- presented in the incidents of the Scriptures as Food, Educator and Groom for the soul. According to him40, the words of the Scriptures should be printed in the soul in one of three ways: 1- Simple people or the uneducated should be taught directly by the letter itself, which we call the obvious meaning or the straightforward historical sense. Origen himself is the foremost biblical scholar of antiquity and by no means ignores the literal meaning or the importance of history41, while he thinks that one existed, he considers it inferior to the spiritual. Nearly all would have agreed with the fourth- century Didymus the Blind, who was influenced by Origen, namely that it is impossible to understand the spiritual or elevated thought without the shadow, which is the letter, or without the preliminary propaedeutic sciences42." 2- People at the higher level should find edification for their souls through the moral meaning, or the lessons they profit from the text. In the Homilies on Leviticus, there are several instances of where this moral meaning is emphasized43. The moral sense of Scripture speaks to the reason of a person. Reason is the ability to distinguish between good and evil44. 3- The perfect should be edified by the mystical or spiritual sense in relation to Christ, or the spiritual Law, as it contains the shadow of the blessings to come. He recognizes that, as man is composed of body, soul and spirit, in the same way the structure of the Scripture has been planned by God for man's salvation, i.e., the literal, moral, and spiritual senses. According to Origen the understanding of the Scripture is "the art of arts," and "the science45.” The words of the Scripture are its body, or the visible element that hides its spirit or the invisible element. The spirit is the treasure hidden in a field: 38 Stromat 1:21; 2:19; 3:6; 6:3,8; 7:3. 39 Clement d' Alexandria, Paris 1944, p. 154; Alexander Kerrigan: St. Cyril of Alexandria, Roma 1952, p.29. 40 De Princip. 4:2:4. 41 H. de Lubac: Histoire et espirit, Paris 1950, p. 94. 42 In EsaiamII:3:7; Boniface Ramsey: Beginning to Read the Fathers, Paulist Press, 1985, p. 36-7. 43 In Lev. hom. 1:5; 2:4. 44 In Lev. 9:6. 45 Comm. John 23:46. hidden behind every word46, every letter but even behind every iota used in the written word of God47. Thus “every thing in the Scripture is mystery48.” This spiritual understanding of the Scripture is a grace given to the perfect believers by Christ. For only those who have the Spirit of Jesus can understand their spiritual meaning49, i.e., to enter this chamber of eternal marriage between Christ and the soul. The Alexandrians' Justifications Of Allegorical Interpretation As we have already said, St. Clement believes that allegory incites believers to discover the hidden meanings of the Scripture. Origen discusses two problems, which the early Church faced, concerning the Old Testament: 1. The Jews, who stick to the letter of the prophecies of the Old Testament, were expecting that the Messiah would fulfill them literally; such as He must be their King who reigns over the whole world. Therefore, they refused Jesus as the true Messiah50. “Both Jews and Christians,” Origen says, “believe that the Bible was written by the Holy Spirit, but we disagree about the interpretation of what is contained in it. Nor do we live like the Jews, since we consider that it is not the literal interpretation of the law which contains the spirit of the legislation51.” 2. The Gnostics rejected the Old Testament, for they were scandalized by some verses, which refer to God as being angry, or that He regretted or changed His mind. They were scandalized because they interpreted them literally and not spiritually52. Origen suggests that allusions to anthropomorphism, such as God's anger, are not to be understood literally. The Gnostics And The School Of Alexandria The most important center of Gnosticism was Alexandria, which had, became the heir of Jewish traditions, classical thought, and the old mysticism of oriental religions53. It was in Alexandria that the greatest doctors of Gnosticism - Basilides, Carpocrates and Valentinus - flourished. St. Athanasius frequently refers to them, as well as to Marcion, warning of their danger to Christian doctrine. St. Clement of Alexandria provides us with a systematic analysis of the various sects. 46 Hom. Levit. 4:8. 47 Hom. Jerm. 39. 48 Hom. Gen. 10:1. 49 In Ezk. Hom 11:2. 50 De Principals 4:2:1. 51 Contra Celsus 5:60. 52 Ibid. 53 B. Walker, Gnosticism, p.11-12; G.W. MacRae, "Nag Hammadi and the New Testament" in Gnosis: Festschrift fur Hans Jonas. In Verbindung mit Ugo Bianchi, Gottingin, 1978, p. 150; R.M. Grant, Gnosticism and Early Christianity, New York, Columbia University Press, 1959, p. 13; id., Gnosticism: A Source Book of Heretical Writings from the Early Christian Period, New York, Harper , 1961, p. 16. Gnostic Teachings 1. Most of the Gnostic schools were thoroughly dualistic, setting an infinite chasm between the spiritual world and the world of matter. 2. In some systems the creation of the material universe is believed to result from the fall of Sophia (wisdom); this creation is viewed as evil. From the Divine Being, the Demiurge was derived by a longer or shorter series of emanations or "aeons." He, through some mischance or fall among the higher aeons, was the immediate source of creation and ruled the world, which was therefore imperfect and antagonistic to what was truly spiritual. 3. Usually Gnostics divided men into two or three classes: The "spiritual" (pneumatics) are those who have illuminated souls; the "fleshy" (hylics) or "material," are slaves of matter, and are earthbound. Some Gnostics add a psychic, intermediate class. 4. The secret knowledge that the Gnostics claimed to possess was acquired, not by perseverance in moral rectitude, but by a sudden illumination that enabled them to understand the ways of God, the universe, and themselves. It was knowledge that freed them and revealed the mysteries of truth. 5. Despite their reliance on the methods and attitudes of current philosophy, they claimed to have succeeded contemptuously as not "having the possibility" of understanding reality. "We alone know the unutterable mysteries of the spirit," the Nassene (Snake) sect claimed (c. 200). 6. Many of the Nag-Hammadi writings are Christ-centered. Their understanding of Christ, the Scriptures and man differed fundamentally from that of members of the Church. The function of Christ was to come as the emissary of the supreme God, bringing "gnosis." As a Divine Being, He neither assumed a properly human body nor died but either temporarily inhabited a human being (Jesus) or assumed a merely phantasmal human appearance54. 7. The Gnostics had their order in secret sects. The leaders were teachers, both men and women, not ecclesiastics. 8. The Gnostics and their orthodox opponents hotly debated the relationship between the Old and New Testaments. The teaching of the Gnostics concerning the antagonism that exists between the Law and the Gospel called forth a vigorous reaction on the part of ecclesiastical writers, especially the Alexandrian Fathers. The Alexandrian Fathers emphatically stressed the fundamental unity of both phases of revelation. 9. Fr. Matthias F. Wahba in his thesis, "The doctrine of Sanctification in relation to Marriage according to St. Athanasius," dealt with the Gnostics' view of marriage55. He states that St. Clement explained that the Gnostic's duelist view of creation led to two opposing attitudes toward marriage and sexuality: the extreme of a rigorous and negative asceticism on the one hand, and a licentious antinomianism on the other. Both repudiate nature; the one through abstention and the other through excess56. 54 Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 1990, p. 573. 55 Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Ottawa, 1933, p. 35-45. 56 Stromata, lll. 1-5.