Università degli Studi di Padova Dipartimento di Studi Linguistici e Letterari Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Lingue Moderne per la Comunicazione e la Cooperazione Internazionale Classe LM-38 Tesi di Laurea Thematic Affinities in Pearl and Saint Erkenwald Relatore Laureando Prof. Alessandra Petrina Margherita Antonello n° matr.1110849 / LMLCC Anno Accademico 2016 / 2017 1 2 Table of Contents Foreword p. 5 Chapter 1 About the Texts p. 11 1.1 The Background of the Texts p. 11 1.2 Religious Circumstances p. 16 1.3 Saint Erkenwald p. 19 1.4 Pearl p. 28 Chapter 2 Common Themes: Baptism p. 37 2.1 The Exceptional Salvation of a Pagan in Saint Erkenwald p. 40 2.2 The Conflicts of Human Logic in Pearl p. 46 Chapter 3 Common Themes: The Weakness of Human Knowledge p. 53 3.1 Bridging the Gap between Divine Wisdom and Human p. 54 Knowledge: Miracle as Mystery Properly Understood 3.2 The Unsettling Inversion of Roles in Pearl p. 60 Chapter 4 Common Themes: The Symbolic Meaning behind Objects p. 71 4.1 How Matter Reflects the Spirit in Saint Erkenwald p. 71 4.2 Pearl as a Constant Metaphor p. 76 Chapter 5 The Possible Influence of the Divina Commedia on the Middle p. 85 English Poems 5.1 Traces of Dante and Della Lana in Saint Erkenwald p. 85 5.2 The Influence of Dante's Mentor-Women on the p. 89 Character of the Pearl-Maiden Conclusion p. 97 Riassunto p. 101 Bibliography p. 107 3 4 Foreword The two medieval poems Pearl and Saint Erkenwald were found in separate manu- scripts but still they have many elements in common. Apart from sharing the same dia- lect, that of the Cheshire area of the North West Midlands, apparently the two date back to the same period, the late fourteenth century, and many stylistic features, key themes and phrases can be found in both. A theory of common authorship has been hinted at by many scholars, but others believe that the orthographical and morphological variations are a proof of the contrary. Those in favour of a shared writing ascribe these variations to the scribes responsible for the transcription rather than to different minds behind the works. Nonetheless the reader can recognize a sort of continuity between the texts, and also among the other poems of the Cotton Nero manuscript, and this has led me to be- lieve that the author of Pearl and Saint Erkenwald is likely to have been the same. The research I carried out examines a possible fil rouge between the two texts. The starting point of my research was the Saint Erkenwald poem: while the Chris- tian orthodox elements of the poem are strong, the point the story seems to make is that even a pagan without any knowledge of Christ can be saved from endless punishment in hell, as long as he surrenders himself or herself to the power of the visible Church and is baptised. The poem tells the tale of some builders, working on the church of Saint Paul in London, who come across a strangely preserved body, whose identity nobody seems to know: at a later stage, the body is allowed the gift of speech, even after death. It tells the curious crowd there gathered that he was a righteous pagan, celebrated by his con- temporaries and buried in such a glorious fashion for his moral incorruptibility, but un- able to enter heaven because he had not been baptised while in life. The only person 5 who is able to save him is the bishop Erkenwald, who, with the help of the Holy Ghost, baptises the man, fulfilling at last God's plan. The choice of topic is unquestionably in- teresting in a climate of religious contrast like that of the late fourteenth century Eng- land: Lollardy was questioning the legitimacy of the visible Church, wanting to shorten the distance between believer and God through a direct reading of the Bible ‒ in a ver- nacular translation. The importance of certain rituals ‒ among which baptism ‒ was challenged, as well as the sacred nature of the clergy. Then, I considered the poem Pearl. It can be read as both a consolatory elegy and as an exegesis of the Bible, seemingly presenting a plot and a style quite far away from the poem Saint Erkenwald. Pearl essentially relies on the tradition of the dream vision, but the emotional context in which it is set makes the text unique among the other texts which belong to the dream vision genre. It tells of how a father who has recently lost a child is trying to cope with the pain, trying to accept that the loss of that innocent creature is somehow part of God's plan and cannot be fought. Through what seems to be a God-given vision, the man is granted one more chance to meet the daughter he lost: in a deep sleep, he gets to see her, no longer a sweet child but now a queen in the city of God. In a landscape that resembles both the earthly paradise of Christian tradition and the New Jerusalem as pictured in the Book of Revelation, the father and the daughter are constantly separated by a stream, but still they connect on a spiritual and emotional level. They have a long conversation covering many topics from the context of the death of the child herself to the theological issue of the salvation of unbaptised children and their fate after life. This sort of sermon, plainly led by the now wise child, helps the man leave his constant state of frustration and longing for the child, bringing him closer to 6 God and making him accept the reality of the loss of the child in peace and harmony with the divine. The theme of salvation is an important element in both poems: in Saint Erkenwald we witness the acceptance into Christendom of a pagan, thanks to his righteous conduct, the grace of God and mainly the sacrament of baptism. On the other hand, in Pearl, the author portrays a young girl who has been saved and welcomed into heaven even if she died too young to be actually able to understand and put into practice the teachings of the Church. The Church expected the common believer to have quite a long life and to be thus able to learn and put into practice Catholic doctrine after baptism ‒ which usu- ally took place when the recipient was still a child. The two characters, however, cannot fulfil such predictions and are offered different and unconventional ways to achieve sal- vation. The main focus is on the fact that both the Pearl-maiden and the judge do not represent the average saved Christian: one was not baptised and had to wait for the sac- rament after death, in order to enter heaven; the other one did not have the chance to ful- fil the path of Christianity through religious education and practice, as the Church of the late Middle Ages required. Despite all this, heaven is granted to both, thanks to the will of God, which the author of the texts always highlights profusely and which seems to become the secret leading force of the poems. Baptism proves to be an interesting element in these two poems as well, even if this sacrament apparently serves opposite goals: for the young Pearl-maiden it is the one and only thing that allows her to become a bride of God. For the pagan judge, baptism is what keeps him away from God's banquet in spite of his uncorrupted life. It is funda- mental at this point to keep in mind the religious and historical context of these works: 7 they were presumably written in a moment of tension between heterodox and orthodox, due to the rise of Lollardy. Considering also the other poems which are believed to be written as well by the so-called Gawain-poet, it is quite clear that the author was a con- servative orthodox writer, quite possibly in opposition to the upcoming Lollard move- ment. The importance given to the rite carried out by an ordained minister, in this pre- cise context, could fit a possible agenda of orthodox propaganda. The texts teach that God worked on Earth through the physical people of the clergy and that the Catholic rituals ‒ such as baptism and others ‒ were not at all empty formalities, but actual fun- damental milestones towards salvation. Refusing them and opposing the authority of the earthly Church, according to the author of the poems, would lead to eternal damnation. The theme of the weakness of human reason in the face of God's plan is another shared topic between Pearl and Saint Erkenwald. In the first text, the dreamer is a per- fect display of human doubt and frailty. He is in awe at the visions he is offered and he experiences a feeling of ignorance throughout the dialogue with the child, struggling to understand what she means: her words, as will be shown later on, are indeed in strong contrast with the earthly experience of men and women. Also in this text, physical sens- ory perception, the only tool humankind possesses to interact with reality, reveals all its flaws and its limitations, proving that men and women do not have the proper instru- ments to access divine truth in this life. Secondly, in Saint Erkenwald, neither libraries nor common knowledge are enough to understand whom the corpse belongs to: only the arrival of a minister of the Church and the descent of the Holy Ghost make sense of the unusual situation. Human reason only causes chaos among the community and it leads to nothing helpful: the crowd is hopeless and in despair in front of the limitations they 8 are facing. Another theme the two poems have in common is the attention given to clothes and other physical elements: external appearances always carry a deeper meaning. For ex- ample, both the dress of the maiden in Pearl and the array of the corpse in Saint Erken- wald convey an implicit ‒ but still central ‒ message, without which the reader's under- standing would be suspended. But many other details enrich the plot with deeper signi- ficance, which makes the reading of the poems much more complex, but at the same time fulfilling. Details are abundant in any description, taking up large parts of the texts. Even if this is a direct consequence of the choice of metre, requiring an incredibly high number of different alliterations and rhymes, it can be also read as a particular taste, or choice, of the poet. As for any Italian student, a comparison with Dante's work was natural for me, while making my research on the texts. I will later on show how many scholars have already supported in the last few years the theory of the influence of the Divina Com- media on some portion of the works by the Gawain-poet. I tried to give myself a little contribution to this theory. Other than showing the quite obvious contact points between Saint Erkenwald and Della Lana's Commentario on Dante's masterpiece, I will also try to show how some of Dante's female figures resemble closely the female angel-child of the poem Pearl. My main goal is to reflect on whether it is actually possible to assume that the au- thor was such a complex and prepared scholar to present two contrasting examples of salvation like these, or whether it is safer to assume that such diverging beliefs and in- quiries belong to two different minds. The visions presented seem to be complementary, 9 each presenting orthodox beliefs and an absolute faith in the role of the sacraments for a man's or woman's salvation but from different points of view. It is important to reflect on the fact that the readers were common adult Christian men and women and it is not clear what these texts could teach them and how those readers may have related to such controversial topics. The poems do offer complementary visions on the topic of baptism and salvation and may have had the aim of increasing the perception of God's power and good predisposition towards the pure and faithful. Highlighting the necessity of the sacrament of baptism is certainly another main goal of both texts, since they both show that exactly this confirmation is the key requirement for gaining access to the endless realm of God. Making an attentive study of which other main topics come through in the poems and how such topics are dealt with, it is clear that the attitude behind the creation of Pearl and Saint Erkenwald is very similar. It is true that the texts offer contexts and styles that may suggest a different authorship, but the contact points are several and, with this brief study, I will try to make a convincing statement about the possibility for common authorship. 10