THE WORLD AS WILL AND REPRESENTATION by ARTHURSCHOPENHAUER Translated from the German by E. F. J. Payne In two volumes: VOLUME I Dover Publications, Inc. New York Copyright © 1969 by Dover Publications, Inc. Copyright © 1958 by The Falcon's Wing Press. All rights reserved under Pan American and In- ternational Copyright Conventions. This Dover edition, first published in 1966, is a republication, with minor corrections, of the work originally published by The Falcon's Wing Press, Indian Hills, Colorado, in 1958. This edition is un abridged with the exception that the General Editor's Preface to the original edition has been omitted. This edition is published by special arrangement with The Falcon's Wing Press. Standard Book Number: 486-21761·2 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-29058 Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501 Translator's Introduction Arthur Schopenhauer was born in the Hanseatic City of Danzig in 1788. His father was a well-to-do merchant of rugged independence and wide cultural interests, and his mother a woman of considerable intellectual gifts who in her day won fame as an authoress. At an early age, the son showed outstanding mental qualities, and soon embarked on an intensive study of the humanities, the empirical sciences, and philosophy at the Universities of Gottingen and Berlin. In 1813 he wrote his first work, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, a thesis which gained for him the degree of doctor of philosophy of Jena University, and in which he expounded his epistemology based on the Kantian doctrine of the ideality of space, time, and the categories. From 1814 to 1818 Schopenhauer lived in Dresden, where his creative genius conceived and gave birth to a philosophical work which, for its depth and range of thought as well as for the clarity and brilliance of its style, was an outstanding achievement for so young a man. It was the more remarkable in that, during the forty-one years he was still to live after its publication, he did not consider it neces sary to modify or recast in any way the basic idea underlying this work. Like Plato, he was deeply stirred by 6~uiJ.~, by the wonder that impels men to philosophize, and he instinctively viewed the world with the objective eye of the genuine thinker. In his youth, he began to keep note-books in which from time to time throughout his life he recorded ideas as they occurred to him. Thus all such notes stemmed from the original fundamental conception round which the whole of his philosophical structure was built. In 1844 a second edition of this main work was published in two volumes, the first of which was virtually a reprint of the first edition of 1819, whilst the second contained in fifty chapters supplementary discussions on the theme of the first. The encyclopaedic range of this supplementary volume is an indication of the depth and maturity of Schopenhauer's thought, and stamps it as one of the most eminent [ v ] [vi] Translator's Introduction works in the whole province of philosophical literature. Like the first a quarter of a century earlier, this second edition evoked little or no response from the learned world of that time, which was still under the influence of Hegel and other post-Kantian philosophers. After 1851, when his last major work was published, Schopenhauer ulti mately acquired fame, and the interest that was now awakened in his philosophy stimulated a demand tor new editions of his works. In 1859, the year before his death, a third edition of Die Welt als Wille und V orstellung was published. Schopenhauer himself has stated that his philosophy is the natural continuation and completion of the Kantian, for he has taken as the foundation of his own system of thought the ideality of space and time and the Kantian thing-in-itself as expounded in the Critique of Pure Reason. In his essay On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, to which Schopenhauer frequently refers in this major work, he discusses in detail the intellectual nature of perception and shows that, from the meagre data supplied by our senses, our faculty of cognition creates immediately and automatically a mental picture of the external world in all its variegated wealth of detail. This mental picture is a "re-presentation" of the data of the senses, a Vorstellung of the intellect, and is something totally different from a mere figment of the imagination. Of the twelve Kantian categories, Schopenhauer rejects eleven as redundant, and retains only the category of causality. He then discusses the a priori nature of time, space, and causality, and shows that they are essentially the three innate functions of our in tellect, inasmuch as they enter inevitably and inseparably into the framework of all possible experience, and are, in fact, the prerequisite of all knowledge of this. Our knowing consciousness, says Schopen hauer, is divisible solely into subject and object. To be object for the subject and to be our representation or mental picture are one and the same. All our representations are objects for the subject, and all ob jects of the subject are our representations. These stand to one another in a regulated connexion which in form is determinable a priori, and by virtue of this connexion nothing existing by itself and independent, nothing single and detached, can become an object for us. It is this connexion which is expressed by the principle of sufficient reason in general. All our representations are divisible into four classes which impart to the principle of sufficient reason its fourfold root. The first aspect of this principle is that of becoming, where it appears as the law of causality and is applicable only to changes. Thus if the cause is given, the effect must of necessity follow. The second aspect Translator's Introduction [ vii] deals with concepts or abstract representations, which are themselves drawn from representations of intuitive perception, and here the principle of sufficient reason states that, if certain premisses are given, the conclusion must follow. The third aspect of the principle is con cerned with being in space and time, and shows that the existence of one relation inevitably implies the other, thus that the equality of the angles of a triangle necessarily implies the equality of its sides and vice versa. Finally, the fourth aspect deals with actions, and the prin ciple appears as the law of motivation, which states that a definite course of action inevitably ensues on a given character and motive. Thus the principle of sufficient reason deals only with our representa tion in the widest sense, that is to say, with the form in which things appear to us, not with that inscrutable metaphysical entity which ap pears through this form, and which Kant calls the "thing-in-itself." Because this "thing-in-itself" transcends the physical framework of time, space, and causality, and therefore of our cognitive functions, Kant regarded a knowledge of it as impossible. Schopenhauer ad mitted this up to a point, although, by identifying the Kantian thing in-itself with the will in ourselves, he maintained that experience itself as a whole was capable of explanation; yet he did not imply by this that no problems remained unsolved. The first volume of this work contains the basic idea of Schopen hauer's system divided into four books and followed by an appendix consisting of a masterly criticism of the Kantian philosophy which greatly facilitates the study of the three Critiques, and in which Schopenhauer readily acknowledges his indebtedness to his master, and just as readily subjects to a searching criticism those points in which he considers that Kant has gone astray. The picture emerging from a study of this first volume is that of an organically consistent structure of thought based on inner and outer experience, and cul minating in three towers, in the metaphysics of nature, of art or aesthetics, and of morality. The second volume supplements the discussions in each of the four books of the first, and represents the mature fruit of a lifetime's re flection on the many problems raised by the main theme of Schopen hauer's philosophy. The great all-embracing idea of the first volume with all its ramifications is further investigated, developed and cor roborated in the second through the many references to art, life, and the empirical sciences. On the one hand, we discern the shrewdness of Schopenhauer's observation of the world and its many relations, a quality in which he is unique, and, on the other, we are struck by the psychological force and even fierceness with which he reveals the deepest recesses of the human heart. Many have complained that his [ viii] Translator's Introduction philosophy is sombre and pessimistic, but an impartial examination will lead to the conclusion that it is neither more nor less pessimistic than the teachings of Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, all of which agree in preaching as the supreme goal deliverance from this earthly existence. * In the history of philosophy Schopenhauer's name will always be associated with a correct distinction between knowledge of perception and abstract knowledge, with a proper analysis of con sciousness, of the so-called psyche, into will and intellect, with the correct interpretation and utilization of the Platonic Ideas, and finally with a true insight into the real nature of Christianity from both the religious and philosophical points of view. It is universally acknowledged by all who have read Schopenhauer's works, even by those who do not share his views, that his prose is second to none in beauty of style and in power and lucidity of expres sion. Long periods are occasionally met with in his works, but there is never a doubt as to the precise meaning of what he wrote. He thought clearly and concisely, and expressed himself in clear and con cise language. He was discriminating in the choice of words and ex pressions, and paid great attention even to punctuation. No translator can take liberties with his prose without adversely affecting the trans lation, which should aim at being as faithful as possible to the author's original work, and yet avoid being too literal and therefore unread able. On the other hand, the translator must resist the temptation to "correct" and touch up his author under the mistaken impression that he is "improving" the work, a practice that was strongly condemned by Schopenhauer. One of the difficulties in rendering a German philosophical work into English comes from the inability of the English language to re produce adequately and accurately some of the philosophical terms and expressions of which there are so many in German. This language is an admirable medium for the precise expression of abstract philo sophical ideas, and the translator must endeavour to keep as close as possible to the meaning of the original. It is pertinent to the matter to mention here one or two German words by way of showing that the translator's task is not always easy, despite the fact that Schopen hauer rarely resorted to the involved and long periods so characteristic of the style of many German philosophers. Anschauung is used by Schopenhauer to describe what occurs when the eye perceives an external object as the cause of the sensation on the retina. "Perception" has been selected as the nearest English * Ct. "East-West Fire ... Schopenhauer's Optimism and the Lankavatara Sutra," C. A. Muses, 1955, passim. Translator's Introduction [ix ] equivalent, although it may also be translated "intuition" in the sense of an immediate apprehension. Wahrnehmung is used to convey the idea of perception through any or all of the five senses. Vernehmen has no exact equivalent in English, and is philologi cally related to Vernunft, the faculty of reason peculiar to man which enables him to form concepts and words from the countless objects perceived in the world of experience. Vernehmen means more than mere sensuous hearing, and implies hearing by means of the faculty of reason. Grund and Vernunft are almost always translated by the word "reason," yet the two German words differ widely in meaning. The context usually enables one to see in which sense the word "reason" is used. Willkiir means free will, free choice, arbitrary power, or caprice. The expression "free will" is likely to give rise to a misconception, since Schopenhauer uses the word to indicate will with the power of choice, will determined by motives, conscious will as opposed to blind impulse. Such will, however, is not absolutely free in the meta physical sense, in as much as a will determined by motives cannot be free. Schopenhauer uses the expression liberum arbitrium indifferentiae to convey the meaning of a will that is absolutely free in the meta physical sense before it has assumed the phenomenal form. He em phatically denies the existence of such a freedom in the world of phenomena. V orstellung is important, for it occurs in the German title of this work. Its primary meaning is that of "placing before," and it is used by Schopenhauer to express what he himself describes as an "exceed ingly complicated physiological process in the brain of an animal, the result of which is the consciousness of a picture there." In the present translation "representation" has been selected as the best English word to convey the German meaning, a selection that is confirmed by the French and Italian versions of Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. The word "idea" which is used by Haldane and Kemp in their English translation of this work clearly fails to bring out the meaning of Vorstellung in the sense used by Schopenhauer. Even Schopenhauer himself has translated V orstellung as "idea" in his criticism of Kant's philosophy at the end of the first volume, although he states in his essay, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, that "idea" should be used only in its original Platonic sense. More over, confusion results in the translation of Haldane and Kemp from printer's errors in the use of "Idea" with a capital letter to render the German Idee in the Platonic sense and of "idea" for the translation [x] Translator's Introduction of Vorstellung as used by Schopenhauer. In the present translation Idee has been rendered by the word "Idea" with a capital letter. After the publication of each of his works, Schopenhauer was in the habit of recording in an interleaved copy additions and modifica tions for incorporation in future editions. In the last ten years of his life, he was engaged on these interleaved copies the blank pages of which were gradually filled with additions and amendments. In many instances these were completely edited and incorporated into the original text. In some cases, however, they were fragmentary and in definite in form, whilst in others a brief reference was made to a passage in Schopenhauer's manuscript-books which formed the itore house of his ideas and furnished essential material for all his works after 1819. In his last years, Schopenhauer had considered the possibility of a complete edition of his works, but the rights of the six publishers ruled out the realization of such a plan during his lifetime. Not till 1873 was it possible for Julius Frauenstlidt, the philosopher's literary executor, to publish an edition of the works which for many years remained the standard, a reprint of it appearing as recently as 1922. Until Schopenhauer's works were out of copyright, scholars had to rely on Frauenstlidt's edition as the standard, but with the suggestion that it contained a number of errors, attempts were made to replace it by a better and more reliable edition. By this time, however, editors no longer had at their disposal all the material that Frauenstlidt had had as Schopenhauer's literary executor. After Frauenstlidt's death in 1879, Schopenhauer's manuscript-books went to the Berlin Li brary, but by an oversight the interleaved copies of the works were sold and for many years were not accessible to scholars. Only gradu ally and by stages was it possible for them to complete their task of the textual criticism and emendation of Schopenhauer's works. The first stage was the pUblication in 1891 of Eduard Grisebach's edition. At the time, scholars were surprised to learn from him that the edition of Frauenstlidt contained many hundreds of errors, whereas his own gave not only the correct order of the works, in accordance with Schopenhauer's wishes, but also a text that had been compared with Schopenhauer's final editions and with the manuscript books. However, it was not long before G. F. Wagner discovered that Grisebach himself had incorporated in his own edition many textual inaccuracies from the edition of Frauenstlidt. The second stage came when the interleaved copies of the works were again accessible to scholars. In 1911 Paul Deussen and his col laborators were able to begin their fine edition of Schopenhauer's works, and full advantage was taken of the possibility of obtaining Translator's Introduction [xi ] an accurate text from the interleaved copies and the manuscript-books. The third and final stage in the work of textual criticism and cor rection was taken up with an examination of the original manuscripts of most of the works. In 1937 Dr. Arthur Htibscher was able for the first time to use such manuscripts for the production of a new edition with a text representing the last word in accuracy. By carefully com paring these manuscripts with the traditional texts, he succeeded in eliminating many errors and inaccuracies from the earlier editions, and in producing a text that would have accorded with Schopen hauer's views. A reprint of this edition appeared between 1946 and 1950, and it is the text of this which has been used in making the present translation. Reference has already been made to the only other English trans lation of Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, which was made by R. B. Haldane (later Lord Haldane) and J. Kemp between 1883 and 1886, and was freely consulted in the preparation of this new English version of Schopenhauer's main work. However, the interests of truth and the importance of this work in the history of philosophy require that attention be drawn to the many errors and omissions in their translation, over a thousand of which came to light when it was com pared with the German text, and which seriously detract from its merit as a work of scholarship. In conclusion, the translator would like to express his deep appre ciation and gratitude to his many friends who, by their kIndness and encouragement, have sustained him in the long task of translation, and in particular to his friend Dr. Arthur Htibscher of Munich, the President of the Schopenhauer-Gesellschaft and one of the most emi nent living authorities on Schopenhauer and his philosophy, for his valuable advice always so generously given, and for the benefits of his wide scholarship in this field which have contributed so much to the work of translation. LONDON, 1957.