The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wonder Book of Knowledge, by Various This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: The Wonder Book of Knowledge The Marvels of Modern Industry and Invention the Interesting Stories of Common Things the Mysterious Processes of Nature Simply Explained Author: Various Editor: Henry Chase Hill Release Date: October 19, 2012 [EBook #41111] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WONDER BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE *** Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) Please see Transcriber’s Notes at the end of this document. Book cover Colour layers HOW COLOR PRINTING IS DONE A plate is made for each of the three printing colors, yellow, red and blue, as explained on page 382. First, yellow is printed, then red on the yellow, and last, blue on the yellow and red combination. Combinations of these three colors in various proportions produce all the other tints which appear in the original subject. Above are shown the separate plates and also the combined result of all three. Extreme care is necessary to make all the plates register exactly together. THE WONDER BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE THE MARVELS OF MODERN INDUSTRY AND INVENTION THE INTERESTING STORIES OF COMMON THINGS THE MYSTERIOUS PROCESSES OF NATURE SIMPLY EXPLAINED COMPILED AND EDITED BY HENRY CHASE HILL WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF EXPERTS REPRESENTING EACH INDUSTRY Illustrated with 780 Photographs and Drawings PHILADELPHIA THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY PUBLISHERS Copyright, 1921 By L. T. MYERS Copyright, 1917-19 Preface This book is presented to those, both young and old, who wish to have a non-technical account of the history, evolution and production of some of the every-day wonders of the modern industrial age; coupled with occasional glimpses of the wonderful object-lessons afforded by nature in her constructive activities in the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms; and simple, understandable answers to the myriad puzzling questions arising daily in the minds of those for whom the fascination of the “Why” and “How” is always engrossing. Although not intended primarily as a child’s book, the interest-compelling pictures and clear, illuminating answers to the constant avalanche of questions suggested by the growing mind, unite in making far happier children in the home and brighter children at school. Parents and teachers will also recognize the opportunity to watch for subjects by which the child’s interest appears to be more than ordinarily attracted, and, in so doing, will be enabled to guide the newly-formed tendencies into the proper channels. With the greatest thinkers of the age advocating vocational training, and leading educators everywhere pointing out that the foundation of a practical education for life must be laid in the home, thoughtful parents will not overlook the fact that a book which both entertains and instructs is of supreme importance in the equipment of their children. In the preparation of this book its function has been considered as that of gathering up some of the multitudinous bits of information of interest, both to the inquiring child and the older reader, and putting them in shape to be digested by the ordinary searcher after knowledge. The book is intended, not for a few technical specialists, but for the larger number of men, women and children who are not interested in exhaustive treatises, but who are seeking to gain some fair idea about the numberless every-day subjects that arise in ordinary conversation, or that they meet with in reading and about which they desire some definite and satisfactory information. Most of us realize that we live in a world of wonders and we recognize progress in industries with which we come in personal contact, but the daily routine of our lives is ordinarily so restricted by circumstances that many of us fail to follow works which do not come within our own experience or see beyond the horizon of our own specific paths. The workman who tends the vulcanizer in the rubber factory has come to take his work as a matter of course; the man who assembles a watch, or a camera, is not apt to appreciate the fact that there have been marvelous developments in his line of manufacturing; the operator of a shoe machine, or of an elevator, does not see anything startling or absorbing in the work—and so we find it almost throughout the entire list of industries. The tendency of the seemingly almost imperceptible movement marking onward development in the work that is familiar is to dull the mind toward opportunities for improvement in the accustomed task. With the exception of the man who is at times impressed with the remarkable advances made in some strikingly spectacular industry, because such knowledge comes to him suddenly, the average workman is often too much inclined to regard himself as a machine, and performs his duties more or less automatically, without attempting to exercise imagination or those powers of adaptation upon which all progress has been builded. A single volume is of necessity too limited a space for anything approximating a complete record of the vast progress which has been made in American Industry. Consequently it has only been possible to select the more characteristic features of the twentieth century and point out the strides by which some of the prominent industries have advanced to their present proportions. If the hitherto undisputed maxim that “the more the individual knows the more he is worth to himself and his associates” still prevails, the chronicling of the developments in some fields should stimulate thought and experiment toward the adaptation of similar methods in others. It is to that end that authorities in each of the industries presented have co-operated in the compilation of this interesting and instructive volume. The Editor. Table of Contents [1] [2] [3] PAGE THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE 9 Origin of Submarine Navigation, 9. The American Types, 10. Twentieth Century Submarines, 11. Engine Power, 12. The Periscope, 13. Voyage of the “Deutschland,” 14. Submarine Dredging, 15. THE STORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL 17 The United States to the Rescue, 17. The Canal and the Navy, 20. The Great Canal, 20. The Hydroelectric Station, 20. Gigantic Obstacles, 30. Gatun Dam, 33. Meeting all Emergencies, 33. A Battle Won, 36. What is a Geyser? 40. What Kind of Dogs are Prairie-Dogs? 42. What is Spontaneous Combustion? 42. THE STORY IN THE TALKING MACHINE 43 The Early Machines, 43. Invention of the Spring Motor, 47. Change from Cylinder to Disc, 47. Making the Record, 49. What are Petrified Forests? 49. What Animals are the Best Architects? 51. THE STORY OF THE MOTORCYCLE 52 Austin’s Steam Velocipede, 52. Motor-paced Racing, 55. First Practical Machine, 54. Modern Refinements, 57. Side Cars and Commercial Bodies, 58. How is the Weather Man Able to Predict Tomorrow’s Weather? 58. How does a Siren Fog Horn Blow? 60. THE STORY IN A WATCH 61 The Standard of Time, 61. Candles as Time-Keepers, 63. Galileo’s Pendulum, 63. Balance Wheel as a Pendulum, 65. The Time Train, 65. How a Watch Works, 67. What Causes Variation in Watches, 71. How does a Monorail Gyroscope Railway Operate? 72. Why are Finger-prints used for Identification? 74. THE STORY IN A RIFLE 75 The Earliest Hunters, 75. The Use of Slings, 77. A Fortunate Accident; 77. As to Arrows, 81. A Shooting Machine, 81. And Now for Chemistry, 81. Playing with Fire, 83. The Coming of the Matchlock, 83. Caps and Breech-Loaders, 85. From Henry VIII to Cartridges, 85. The Beginning of Precision in Mechanics, 87. Making Barrels, 92. Taking off 2⁄1000 of an Inch, 92. The Making of Ammunition Today, 94. Handling Deadly Explosives, 96. Extreme Precautions, 96. How does an Artesian Well Keep up its Supply of Water? 96. Where do Dates come from? 97. THE STORY OF RUBBER 98 How was Rubber First Used? 98. What is a Rubber Camp Like? 100. How is Rubber Gathered by the Natives? 103. How is Rubber Smoked? 104. How was Vulcanizing Discovered? 105. How did Rubber Growing Spread to Other Places? 108. How is Rubber Cured on Modern Plantations? 110. How is Crude Rubber Received Here? 112. How is Rubber Prepared for Use? 112. How are Rubber Shoes Made? 116. How are Automobile Tires Made? 119. How did the Expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” Originate? 119. What is an AerialRailway Like? 119. Why are they called Newspapers? 121. How did the Cooking of Food Originate? 121. How Far away is the Sky-Line? 121. THE STORY OF ROPE 122 Civilized Rope Makers, 122. Hand Spinning, 124. Machine-made Ropes, 128. American Hemp, 128. Manila and Sisal Fibers, 130. Wire Ropes, 132. Pine Tar for Ropes, 134. Why does Rope Cling Together? 136. What is Rope Used for? 136. How did the Expression “A-1” Originate? 136. How has Man Helped Nature give us Apples? 136. What kind of a Crab Climbs Trees? 138. How are Files Made? 138. THE STORY OF SELF-LOADING PISTOLS 139 Colt Pistols, 139. Machine Guns, 145. How does the Poisonous Tarantula Live? 146. How do the Indians Live Now? 146. How does the Beach get its Sand? 149. How did Nodding the Head Up and Down Come to Mean “Yes”? 149. Why do We Call a Man “a Benedict” When He Marries? 149. THE STORY IN FIRECRACKERS AND SKY-ROCKETS 150 The Need for Noisemakers, 150. Chinese Firecrackers, 150. Popular ever since the Invention of Gunpowder, 154. Beautiful Displays, 158. What makes a Chimney Smoke? 158. What are Dry Docks Like? 161. Why does a Lightning Bug Light Her Light? 161. [4] THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A PICTURE 162 The Image is Upsidedown, 162. Effect of Light on the Film, 163. Early Photographic Efforts, 164. Modern Photography, 168. How Deep is the Deepest Part of the Ocean? 169. Why do We say “Get the Sack”? 169. Why do We call them X-Rays? 169. How did the Term “Yankee” Originate? 171. Why do We say “Kick the Bucket”? 171. When does a Tortoise move Quickly? 171. THE STORY IN A NEWSPAPER 172 Gutenberg’s Press in 1450, 172. Cylinder Presses, 173. Curved Plates, 175. Printing, Folding and Counting 216,000 Papers an Hour, 175. Color Printing, 180. What do We Mean by the “Flying Dutchman”? 180. Why does a Duck’s Back Shed Water? 180. Why doesn’t the Sky ever Fall Down? 180. How are Sand-Dunes Formed? 180. What do We Mean by an Eclipse? 181. What are Dreams? 182. What makes Our Teeth Chatter? 182. THE STORY IN A HONEY COMB 183 Sixty Thousand Bees in a Hive, 183. Modern Bee-Keeping, 187. Profitable Anywhere, 193. Where do Figs Come from? 199. What are Fighting Fish? 199. How is the Exact Color of the Sky Determined? 199. What is a Divining Rod? 199. THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 200 A Modern Aladdin’s Lamp, 200. Electric Hot Irons the First Appliances, 201. How They are Made, 202. Electric Cooking Appliances, 205. Electric Toaster, 206. Electric Coffee Percolator, 206. Baking and Roasting, 210. Vacuum Cleaners, 212. Why is there Always a Soft Spot in a Cocoanut Shell? 214. How does a Gasoline Motor Run an Electric Street Car? 214. How do Carrier Pigeons Carry Messages? 216. What Family has Over 9,000,000 Members? 216. THE STORY IN THE TELEPHONE 217 Invention, 217. Essential Factor in American Life, 218. America Leads in Telephone Growth, 220. American Telephone Practice Superior, 222. The First Transcontinental Line, 225. Wireless Speech Transmission, 226. The Mobilization of Communication, 228. Why do they Call Them “Fiddler-Crabs”? 229. How Far can a Powerful Searchlight Send its Rays? 229. What Started the Habit of Touching Glasses Before Drinking? 231. Why are Windows Broken by Explosions? 231. What does the Expression “Showing the White Feather” come from? 231. THE STORY IN ELEVATORS AND ESCALATORS 232 From Novelty to Necessity, 232. The Escalator, 235. The Cleat Escalator, 239. The MovingPlatform, 239. What Happens when Animals Hibernate? 241. How do Peanuts get in the Ground? 241. How did Your State get its Name? 243. THE STORY OF COAL MINING 244 The World Depends on Coal, 244. Dangers of Mining, 244. How Coal Grew, 247. The Vast Quantities Produced, 253. How can We Hear through the Walls of a Room? 251. What is a Diesel Engine Like? 252. What does the Sheep-grower get for the Wool in a Suit of Clothes? 252. THE STORY IN A SILVER TEASPOON 253 The Spoon is Older than History, 253. Development of Various Shapes, 254. Plating Re-Discovered, 256. Electro- plating, 257. Stages in Manufacture, 258. Evolution of a Knife, 259. How do Chimes Strike the Hour? 260. How is Electricity Brought into a House? 262. What was the Origin of Masonic Signs? 262. What is a Dictograph? 262. STORY OF THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH 263 Stretching a Dog, 263. Marconi’s Method, 263. Tuning the Instruments, 264. Interferences, 265. What is Forestry Work? 267. How did the Fashion of Wearing Cravats Commence? 270. How does the Gas Meter Measure Your Gas? 270. What is a Game Preserve? 270. THE STORY OF THE BUILDING OF A SILO 271 What is a Silo? 271. The First Silo, 271. What is put in a Silo? 271. Elements of Success or Failure, 271. [5] THE STORY OF THE ADVANCE OF ELECTRICITY 273 The First Commercial Central Station, 273. Edison and the Electric Light, 273. Electricity a Living Factor, 279. In the Printing Trade, 279. Construction, 279. Loft Manufacturing, 281. Electric Heating, 281. Electricity and Safety, 281. Electricity in Medicine, 281. Electric Vehicles, 282. Electricity and the Home, 282. Decreased Cost of Electricity, 285. How is Die-Sinking Done? 285. THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A MAGAZINE 286 Printing in Millions, 286. Color Printing, 289. How Did the Ringing of Curfew Originate? 289. THE STORY OF AMERICA’S FIRST HORSELESS CARRIAGE 290 The Problems of Weight and Vibration, 290. The First Demonstration, 290. THE STORY IN A SAUSAGE 292 The First “Roast Pig,” 292. Smoking Ham, 292. Salt Pork, 293. The Era of Refrigeration, 295. An Up-to-date Packing Plant, 295. Dressing Meat, 298. By-Products, 298. Why do We call them “Dog Days?” 301. How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece Made? 303. How does a Bird Fly? 303. THE STORY OF THE BIG REDWOOD TREES 304 Long Life of the Great Trees, 304. Valuable Qualities of the Redwood, 304. Fire Retardance, 306.Magnificent Tones for Decoration, 306. How did the Expression “Forlorn Hope” Originate? 306. Why is “Wall Street” known Around the World? 308. What makes a Stick Seem To Bend in Water? 308. What causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat? 308. How are We Able to Hear through Speaking Tubes? 308. Why do We Always Shake Hands with our Right Hand? 308. THE STORY IN A BILLIARD TABLE 309 An Ancient Game, 309. Modern Manufacture, 311. The Cue is a work of Art, 314. The FinestIvory for Balls, 314. What is the Hottest Place in the United States? 315. What are White Blackberries Like? 317. Why do They Have a Dog-Watch on Shipboard? 317. How Much Gold has a 14-Carat Ring? 317. What is an Electro Magnet? 317. THE STORY IN A PIN 318 Once a Luxury of the Wealthy, 318. Formerly made in Parts, 319. Making 25,000,000 Pins a Year, 321. How are Glaciers Formed? 324. How Large are Molecules? 324. PICTORIAL STORY OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY 325 Episodes in the Game, 325. Modern Fishing Vessels, 326. The Trawl, 327. Drawing the Net, 328. Fish Curing, 329. Preparing for Market, 330. THE STORY IN A BOX OF CALIFORNIA ORANGES 331 Picked with Gloves, 331. Grading, 331. Shipped in Refrigerators, 333. What Kind of Steel Knives do not Stain or Rust? 333. Why is it Necessary to Keep Quiet when Fishing? 333. First Apartment Houses in this Country, 336. Why do we Call 32° above Zero Freezing? 336. How is Fresco Painting Done? 336. THE STORY OF A PIECE OF CHEWING GUM 337 Juice of the Chicle Tree, 337. Treatment in the Factory, 342. Where did the Ferris Wheel get its Name? 342. What is Done to Keep Railroad Rails from Breaking? 342. How does a “Master Clock” Control others by Electricity? 342. THE STORY OF THE CALCULATING MACHINE 345 How did Men Learn to Count? 345. The First Adding Machine, 345. The Slide Rule Principle, 348. The “Difference Engine,” 348. Present-Day Models, 349. The Largest Adding Machine, 354. How are Adding Machines Used? 355. Where does Ermine Come from? 356. What is the Principle of “Foreign Exchange?” 356. What do We Mean by “The Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms”? 356. THE STORY IN A BOWLING ALLEY 357 Bowling Green, New York City, 357. How the Alley is Built, 358. Composition Balls, 361. [6] How are Artificial Precious Stones Made? 361. What is a Mexican Bull-Fight Like? 363. What is the Difference between “Alternating” and “Direct” Current? 363. What was the “Court of Love”? 363. THE STORY OF THE ADDRESSOGRAPH 364 Birth of Mechanical Addressing, 364. The First Addressograph, 364. Greater Speed, 366. A Card Index that Addresses Itself, 367. What is Dry Farming? 372. What is a Drying Machine Like? 372. How does the New York Stock Exchange Operate? 374. How did the term “Cowboys” Originate? 374. THE STORY IN A CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHER 375 Smothering Fire with a Gas Blanket, 375. The Soda and Acid Extinguisher, 376. How is Gold Leaf Made? 377. What is the Natural Color of Goldfish? 377. When was “Liquid Fire” first used in Warfare? 377. How did the Greyhound get his Name? 377. Why is It Called “Battery Park”? 379. How do we Know that the Earth is Round? 379. What were “Ducking Stools?” 379. THE STORY IN PHOTO-ENGRAVING 380 Pictures are the Universal Language, 380. What a Halftone is, 380. Line Engravings, 381. Color Engraving, 382. Where are Milk-Pails Filled from Trees? 383. How did the Wearing of a Crown Originate? 384. Why do Lobsters change Color? 384. How do Fishes Swim? 384. Where do Pearls Come from? 385. What is Cork? 385. THE STORY IN A GIANT CANNON 386 Origin of the Cannon, 386. Modern Cannon, 392. How Cannon are Now Made, 393. Built-Up and Wire-Wound Guns, 394. Feats of Modern Guns, 406. What is a Deep-Sea Diver’s Dress Like? 411. Why do We Smile when We are Pleased? 412. Why do Some of Us have Freckles? 412. PICTORIAL STORY OF THE STEEL INDUSTRY 413 Mining Ore, 413. Open-Hearth Furnaces, 416. Blast Furnaces, 417. A 15,000 Ton Forge, 418. Oil-Tempering, 420. Bending Armor Plate, 422. Largest Steel Casting in the World, 424. Casting Steel, 431. Rolling Rails, 432. What do We Mean by “Deviation of the Compass?” 435. THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A PAIR OF SHOES 436 Shoemaking by Machine, 436. Cross-Section of a Shoe, 437. Lasting Machine, 440. Details of the Process, 442. Evolution of a Shoe, 447. What is Standard Gold? 448. What are Cyclones? 450. What Metals can be Drawn into Wire Best? 450. How are Cocoanuts Used to Help our Warships? 450. How did the Dollar Sign Originate? 450. PICTORIAL STORY OF FIRE APPARATUS 451 Aerial Truck, 451. Motor Fire Engine, 451. Old-time Apparatus, 452. Chemical Engine, 455. STORY OF THE TAKING OF FOOD FROM THE AIR 458 Nitrogen and Oxygen in the Air, 458. Fixation of Nitrogen, 459. Liquid Air, 460. Fertilizer, 461. Ammonia, 466. What is a Drawbridge Like Today? 466. THE STORY OF A DEEP-SEA MONSTER 468 A Thirty-nine Hour Battle, 468. Five Harpoons and 151 Bullets needed, 468. An Unknown Leviathan, 470. What is an Armored Railway Car Like? 470. What is an Electric Eel? 472. THE STORY OF SALT 473 Natural Salt, 473. The Polish Mines, 474. Refining, 476. Why do We Call it “Denatured Alcohol”? 478. What is the Difference between a Cruiser and a Battleship? 478. THE STORY OF THE GROWTH OF THE MOTOR TRUCK 481 Practically Developed since 1905, 481. Cheaper Transportation, 489. What is a Diving Bell? 489. How are Harbors Dredged Out? 491. How is a Razor Blade Made? 491. THE STORY OF THE TUNNELS UNDER THE HUDSON RIVER 492 [7] Bold Engineering, 492. 40,000 Men, 492. How the Tunneling Shield Works, 494. Air Pressure, 496. Extraordinary Adventures under the River, 501. What Causes Floating Islands? 504. PICTORIAL STORY OF THE AIRSHIP 505 Well-known Aviators, 505. Military Monoplane, 506. NC-4, First Plane to Cross the Atlantic, 507. Vickers-Vimy, First Flier to make Non-Stop Atlantic Flight, 508. Chart of Transatlantic Fliers, 509. The Wright Brothers, 510. British Transatlantic Dirigible, R-34, 511. Examples of Military Uses, 512. THE STORY OF AN AUTOMOBILE FACTORY 518 A half-million Cars a year, 518. Overhead Cranes Cut Costs, 520. Safety First, 521. One thingat a Time, 524. Quick Assembling, 526. The Body Chute, 530. Motion Picture Advertising, 537. How do Big Buildings get their Granite? 539. RAILROAD SCENES FROM SHOP AND ROAD 541 All Steel Train, 541. Electric Train, 542. Train of 120 Cars, 543. An Observation Car, 544. Electric Baggage Truck, 545. Terminal Stations, 546. Paint Drying Oven, 547. Locomotive Building, 548. Types of Locomotives, 550. THE STORY OF AN UP-TO-DATE FARM 556 Luxuries of Farm Life, 556. Plenty of Food, 557. Reaping Hook, 558. The Cradle, 559. Early Attempts to Harvest with Machines, 561. The First Successful Reaper, 563. Development of the Reaper, 564. The Self-Binder, 568. The Twine Binder, 570. Other Machines Follow, 574. What Causes an Echo? 574. THE STORY OF THE MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTING MACHINE 575 Spectacular Rise of Motion Pictures, 575. How the Projector Operates, 578. Varied Uses of the Pictures, 579. THE STORY OF LEATHER 580 Tanning, 580. Oiling, 582. Finishing Coats, 583. Currying, 583. What is a “Glass Snake?” 583. THE STORY IN DIAMOND-CUTTING 584 Where Diamonds Come from, 584. Famous Diamonds, 585. Methods of Cutting, 585. Defects in Diamonds, 586. Brilliancy, 587. Why do We get Hungry? 588. THE STORY IN THE MODERN LIFTING MAGNET 589 What a Magnet is, 589. How an Electric Magnet Works, 590. Will Lift 30 Tons, 592. Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland? 593. How are Animals Identified on Cattle Ranges? 594. How is Glue Made? 594. Why does a Hot Dish Crack if we put Ice Cream in It? 594. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF TITLES AND SUBJECTS 595 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 607 The Story of the Submarine [1] Origin of Submarine Navigation. The history of invention has no chapter more interesting than that of sailing under the ocean’s waves. The navigation of the air approaches it in character, but does not present the vital problems of undersea travel. Both these new fields of navigation have been notably developed within recent years, largely as a result of the great European war. It is the story of sailing in the depths beneath the ocean’s surface with which we here propose to deal. The problem was settled easily enough for his purpose by Jules Verne, in his “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.” But that was pure fiction without scientific value. It is with fact, not fiction, that we are here concerned. [8] [9] Submarine submerging A Submarine About to Submerge The story takes us back three hundred years, to the reign of James I, of England, when a crude submarine boat was built, to be moved by oars, but one of no value other than as a curiosity. At a later date a man named Day built a similar boat, wagering that he would go down one hundred yards and remain there twenty-four hours. So far as is known, he still remains there, winning the wager which he has not come up to claim. Other such boats were constructed at intervals, but the first undersea boat of any historical importance was the “American Turtle,” built by a Yankee named David Bushnell during the time that the British held New York in the Revolutionary War. He sought to blow up the British frigate “Eagle” with the aid of a torpedo and nearly succeeded in doing so, seriously scaring the British shippers by the explosion of his torpedo. The next to become active in this line of discovery was Robert Fulton, the inventor of the first practical steamboat. He, like Bushnell, was an American, but his early experiments were in France, where Napoleon patronized him. With his boat, the “Nautilus,” he made numerous descents, going down twenty-five feet in the harbor of Brest and remaining there an hour. He said that he could build a submarine that could swim under the water and destroy any war vessel afloat. But the French Admiralty refused to sustain him, one old admiral saying, “Thank God, France still fights her battles on the surface, not beneath it.” Fulton finally went to England and there built a boat with which he attached a torpedo to a condemned brig, set aside for that purpose. The brig was blown up in the presence of an immense throng, and Fulton finally sold his invention to the British government for $75,000. Nothing further came of it. The submarine next came into practical view during the American Civil War, when the Confederate government built several such vessels, known usually as “Davids” from their inventor. Now, for the first time, did such a craft demonstrate its powers. On the night of February 17, 1864, one of the “Davids,” the “Hunley,” blew up the steamship “Housatonic” in Charleston harbor. The wave caused by the explosion swamped the submarine and it and its crew found a watery grave. Other submarines were built and experimented with, not only in the United States but in European countries. One of the later inventors was an Irish-American named John P. Holland, who, in 1876, built a submarine called the “Fenian Ram.” The “Ram” collapsed with the collapse of the Fenian movement. Other boats were built and tried, but the successful period of the submarine was deferred until after 1893, when the United States Congress appropriated $200,000 to encourage such an enterprise and invited inventors to submit designs. This, and a similar movement in France, formed the first official recognition of the value of vessels of this class. The prize offered by Congress brought out three designs, one by Mr. Holland, the “Ram” inventor, one by George C. Barker, and a third by Simon Lake. The names of Holland and Lake have since been closely associated with the history of the submarine. Mr. Holland’s device secured approval and in 1894 he received a contract to build a submarine vessel. This, named the “Plunger,” was begun in 1895, but was finally abandoned and a vessel of different type, the “Holland,” was built in its place. It was accepted by the government in 1900. A number of others similar to the “Holland” were subsequently built. The American Types. The type of these vessels was what became known as the “diving.” They were controlled by a rudder placed at the stern of the vessel and acting in both a horizontal and a vertical direction, the force of the screw propeller driving the boat forward in the direction desired. In 1904 the navy of the United States possessed eight Holland boats and there were also a number of them in the British navy. [10] Mr. Lake’s design, offered in 1893 but not accepted, had as its novel feature a plan by which a door could be opened in the bottom of the ship and the crew leave and enter it in diving suits, the water being kept out by the force of compressed air. To maintain the vessel on an even keel he introduced four vanes, called “hydroplanes,” for regulating the depth of descent. By aid of these and the horizontal rudder it was found that the vessel would run for hours at a constant depth and on a level keel. There were other devices for diving or rising to the surface. In 1901 Mr. Lake built a large vessel of this type which was sold to the Russian government and was in commission at Vladivostock during the Russian-Japanese War. He afterwards received orders from this and other governments for a number of vessels of the even-keel type, and his principles of control have since been generally adopted as the safest and most reliable controlling agency for under-water craft. We have not in the above brief statement described all the efforts to invent a satisfactory under-water boat. In several of the nations of Europe experiments, more or less available, had been tried, but the most practical results were achieved by the American inventors, Bushnell, Fulton, Davy, Holland and Lake. It will suffice here to say that the most successful of submarines were those constructed by Holland and Lake. An important addition was made in 1901 in a French boat, the “Morse,” built at Cherbourg. The difficulty of navigators telling where they were when under water, and of changing their course safely without coming to the surface to reconnoitre, was in a large measure overcome by the addition of a “periscope.” This, rising above the water, and provided with reflecting lenses, enabled the steersman to discover the surface conditions and see any near vessel or other object. The “Morse” was able to sink in seventy seconds and her crew could remain under water for sixteen hours without strain. German submarine A Mine-planting Submarine Designed in Berlin by Simon Lake in 1895 for the Russian Government Twentieth Century Submarines. We have given an epitome of the development of the submarine vessel up to the opening of the twentieth century. It had now reached a successful status of achievement and during the early years of that century was to display a remarkable progress. Holland and Lake may be looked upon as the parents of the modern development of the submersible boat, their designs being at the base of the great European progress. France took up the work actively, its most successful early vessel being the “Narval,” built in 1899. This was 118 feet long by 8 feet 3 inches beam, 106 tons surface and 168 submerged displacement. She was a double-deck vessel controlled by Lake hydroplanes, and had installed steam power for surface travel and electric power for undersea work. The French at this time kept their methods secret, and no useful type had been developed in England, the result being that a plant was provided for the building of Holland boats in that country. Germany used the Lake devices, which had not been patented in that country and were made use of by the Krupps. Thus it appears that the modern submarines, as now built and used in the navies of the world, owe their success to principles of construction and devices for control originated and developed by American inventors. Engine Power. The internal-combustion engine is the heart of the submarine. Steam, with its heavy engine, has been long set aside, and electricity, derived from the storage battery, yet awaits sufficient development. Gasoline succeeded them. The internal- combustion engine became essential from its light weight and the fact that it could be started and shut down instantly. This is of prime importance, as permitting quick submergence or emergence, either to escape from a high-speed destroyer or to capture a merchantman. It weighs less per horse power, takes up less room and requires less fuel per hour than any other reliable motor. It was early used in both the Holland and Lake boats and is still the chief prime motor. [11] [12] Protector on submarine A Protector Fitted for Experimental Work Under Ice The difficulty with the early boats was that they were slow in speed, making only from eight to nine knots per hour. Increased speed was demanded by governments and more powerful engines, within a fixed limit of weight, were demanded. In doing this engines were built of such flimsy construction that they soon went to pieces. The gasoline used also gave off a gas of highly explosive character and one very likely to escape from leaky tanks or joints. Several explosions took place in consequence, in one of which twenty-three men were killed. As a result all the nations demanded that a non-explosive fuel should be used, and builders turned to the Diesel engine as offering a solution to the difficulty. This heavy oil engine, weighing about five hundred pounds per horse-power, was not adapted to the submarine, and efforts have been made to decrease the weight. These have not as yet had a satisfactory result and experiments are still going on. The Periscope. As the engine is the heart of the submarine, the periscope is its eye. This is, in its simpler forms, a stiff, detachable tube from fifteen to twenty feet long and about four inches in diameter. On its top is an object glass which takes in all objects within its range and transmits an image of them through a right-angled prism and down the tube. By means of other lenses and prisms an image of the external object is thus made visible to those within the submarine. In this process of transmission there is a certain loss of light, and to allow for that the image is magnified to about one-quarter above natural size. Submarine under ice A Submarine Under Ice To obtain in this manner a correct idea of the distance of the object seen proved difficult, but by continued experiment this difficulty has been overcome. Mr. Lake developed an instrument suited to this purpose and one which gave a simultaneous view of the entire horizon. There is one fault in the periscope not easy to obviate. It is an instrument for [13] day use only. When dark comes on it becomes useless, and this does away with the possibility of a successful submarine attack by night. The periscope is the one part of the submarine scout equipment that is open to vision from the surface. But while the outlook of the undersea captain, aided by his telescopic sights, has a radius of several miles, the periscope tube, of only four or five-inch diameter and painted of a neutral tint, is not easily seen. If the sea is a little choppy it is difficult to discover it with the naked eye at about 300 or 400 yards away, or in a smooth sea at over 500 yards. The idea that a submarine may be located by an aeroplane is looked upon by Mr. Lake as a fallacy, except in water of crystal-like clearness, like that of the Mediterranean or the Caribbean, and periscopes are now being made to scour the heavens as well as the horizon, so that the presence of an enemy aeroplane can easily be seen. An attack by an aeroplane bomb, therefore, can readily be avoided, in view of the difficulty of hitting such an object from the upper air. The submarine is the guerrilla of the sea. Its tactics are like those of the Indian who fights under cover or lies in ambush for his enemy. It is the weaker party and can hope for success only through strategy. The old adage that “all is fair in love and war” applies to this new weapon of destruction as to every warlike instrument. It is its invisibility that makes the submarine the terror of the seas. This has been well proved during the European war. The North Sea and the English Channel have been invaded by German submarines which have made great havoc among merchant ships. And it is well to draw attention to the fact that submarines are safe from each other. In no case has a battle taken place between two of these armed sharks except in the one instance reported of an Austrian sinking an Italian submarine. But in this case the Italian boat was on the surface and was at the time practically a surface ship. During the war the Germans were especially active in the use of the submarine, and did much in making them an effective terror of the seas. With no mercantile marine of their own to guard, they had a free field for attack in the abundant shipping of their foes. The loss of ships was so numerous and became such a common occurrence that little attention was finally paid to them except when great loss of life took place, as in the signal instance of the “Lusitania.” Sectional view of submarine Type of High Speed Ocean-going Submarine The Voyage of the “Deutschland.” The great mission of the submarine during the European war was as a commerce destroyer. Many ships were sunk and many lives, with cargoes of great value, were lost, and it was not until the summer of 1916 that the submarine appeared in a new rôle, that of a commerce carrier. On July 9th of that year the people of Baltimore were astounded by the appearance in their port of a submarine vessel of unusual size and novel errand. Instead of being a destroyer of merchandise, this new craft was an unarmed carrier of merchandise. It had crossed the Atlantic on a voyage of 4,000 miles in extent, laden with dyestuffs to supply the needs of American weavers. This new type of vessel, the “Deutschland,” was an undersea craft of 315 feet length and a gross tonnage of 701 tons, its cargo capacity being more than 1,000 tons. It had crossed the ocean in defiance of the wide cordon of enemy warships which swarmed over part of its route, and reached port in safety after a memorable voyage, to the surprise and interest of the world. Leaving the port of Bremenhaven on June 18th, and halting at Heligoland for four days to train its crew, it made its way across the Atlantic in sixteen days. During this voyage it lay for two hours on the ocean bottom in the English Channel and was submerged in all not over ninety hours, the remainder of the voyage being made on the surface. Its crew, composed of twenty-six men and three officers, found their novel voyage rather agreeable than otherwise. Supplied with plenty of good food, a well-selected library, a graphophone with an abundance of music records, and other means of convenience and enjoyment, their voyage was more of a holiday then a hardship, and they reached their transatlantic port none the worse for their hazardous trip. It was not the longest that had been made. Other submarines had voyaged from German ports to the eastern limit of the Mediterranean, but it was the most notable and attracted the widest attention. [14] [15] Submarine Deutschland The German Merchant Submarine “Deutschland” which Crossed the Atlantic in 1916, after Eluding the British Blockade Courtesy of Baltimore American and C. & P. Telephone Co. The return voyage promised to be more perilous then the outgoing one. A fleet of British and French ships gathered around the outlet of Chesapeake Bay, alert to capture the daring mariners and their ship, if possible. Ready to leave Baltimore on July 20th, with a return cargo of gold, nickel and rubber, the captain of the “Deutschland” shrewdly awaited a favorable opportunity and on August 1st began his voyage, plunging under sea as he left the American coast- line and easily evading the line of floating foemen. The return to its home port a success, a second round-trip voyage was made and completed on December 11th, in the course of which a convoying tug-boat was rammed and sunk with the loss of several lives, shortly after leaving New London, Conn. The “Deutschland” was sent out by private parties, for purely commercial purposes, not as a military enterprise. Such is the story of a pioneer enterprise, that of the use of submarine vessels as commerce carriers. It is one not likely to be supplemented in times of peace, since surface boats would be cheaper and more available. But in future wars—if such there are to be—it may point to a future of advantageous trade. Submarine Dredging. Commerce is not the only peaceful mission of the submarine. In 1895 was organized an association known as the Lake Submarine Company, its purpose being to use the Lake type of submarine boat for the recovery of lost treasures from the sea bottom and for other possibilities of undersea work. This company is still in existence, its various purposes being to recover sunken ships and their cargoes, to build breakwaters and other submerged constructions, to aid in submarine tunnel building, to dredge for gold, to fish for pearls and sponges, and for similar operations. The first vessel adapted to these purposes was the “Argonaut,” built by Simon Lake in 1894. The important feature of this boat was a diver’s compartment, enabling divers to leave the vessel when submerged, for the purpose of operating on wrecks or performing other undersea duties. This vessel and its successors have bottom doors for the use of divers, as previously stated. They are now used for numerous purposes for which they are much better adapted then the old system of surface diving, the sea bottom being under direct observation and within immediate reach. This sea bottom, in localities near land, is abundantly sown with wrecks, old and new, and in many cases bearing permanently valuable cargoes, such as gold and coal. The Lake system greatly simplifies the work of search for sunken ships, the vessels being able in a few hours’ time to search over regions which would have taken months in the old method. Many wrecks have been found by these bottom-prowling scouts and valuable material recovered. Thus vessels laden with coal have been traced that had been many years under the water and deeply covered with sand and silt, and their cargoes brought to the surface. [16] Submarine dredging A Semi-submersible Wrecking Apparatus The gold-dredging spoken of refers to the working of gold-bearing sands found at the mouth of certain rivers in Alaska and South America. Places on the Alaskan coast, laid bare at high tide, are said to have yielded as much as $12,000 per cubic yard. With the Lake system it is possible to gather material from such localities to a depth of 150 or more feet, the material being drawn up by suction pumps into the vessel and its gold recovered. Another important application is that of fishing for pearl shells, sponges and coral. This is blind work when done by divers from the surface, the returns being largely matters of chance. By aid of submerged boats, with their powerful electric lights, the work becomes one of certainty rather than of chance. The recovery of the oyster, clam and other edible shell-fish is also a feature of the work which the Lake Company has in view. The present method of dredging is of the “hit or miss” character, while the submarine method is capable of thorough work. Vessels have been designed for this purpose with a capacity of gathering oysters from good ground at the rate of 5,000 bushels per hour. In regard to submarine engineering, of its many varieties, the Lake system is likely to be a highly useful aid and assistance. These particulars are given to show that the submarine vessel is not wholly an instrument of “frightfulness,” as indicated by its use in war, but is capable of being made useful for many purposes in peace. Some of these have here been very briefly stated. With continued practice its utility will grow, and by its aid the sea bottom up to a certain depth may become as open to varied operations as is the land surface. The Story of the Panama Canal America has captured the forces of Nature, harnessed the floods and made the desert bloom, builded gigantic bridges and arrogant skyscrapers and bored roadways through solid rock and beneath water, but the most spectacular of all spectacular accomplishments is the Panama Canal. Some four centuries ago, Balboa, the intrepid, the persevering, led his little band of adventurers across the Isthmus of Darien, as it was then called, and, leaving their protection, gave rein to his impatience by going on ahead and climbing alone, slowly and painfully, the continental divide, from which vantage point he discovered the world’s largest ocean. We are told that, later, gathering his followers, he walked out into the surf and with his sword in his right hand and the banner of Castile in his left gave the vast expanse of water its present name and claimed all the land washed by its waves the lawful property of the proud country to which he owed allegiance. The narrowness of the Isthmus naturally suggested the cutting of a waterway through it. It interposed between Atlantic and Pacific a barrier in places less than fifty miles wide. To sail from Colon to Panama—forty-five miles as the bird flies —required a voyage around Cape Horn—some ten thousand miles. Yet it was nearly four centuries before any actual effort was made to construct such a canal. In 1876 an organization was perfected in France for making surveys and collecting data on which to base the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, and in 1878, a concession for prosecuting the work was secured from the Colombian Government. In May, 1879, an international congress was convened, under the auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps, to consider the question of the best location and plan of the canal. The Panama Canal Company was organized, with Ferdinand de Lesseps as its president, and the stock of this company [17] was successfully floated in December, 1880. The two years following were devoted largely to surveys, examinations and preliminary work. In 1889 the company went into bankruptcy and operations were suspended until the new Panama Canal Company was organized in 1894. The United States to the Rescue. The United States, not unmindful of the advantages of an Isthmian Canal, had from time to time, made surveys of the various routes. With a view to government ownership and control, Congress directed an investigation, with the result that the Commission reported, on November 16, 1901, in favor of Panama and recommended the lock type of canal, appraising the value of the rights, franchises, concessions, lands, unfinished work, plans and other property, including the railroad of the new Panama Canal Company, at $40,000,000. An act of Congress, approved June 28, 1902, authorized the President of the United States to acquire this property at this figure, and also to secure from the Republic of Colombia perpetual control of a strip of land not less than six miles wide across the Isthmus and the right to excavate, construct and operate and protect thereon a canal of such depth and capacity as would afford convenient passage to the largest ships now in use or which might be reasonably anticipated. Later on a treaty was made with the Republic of Panama whereby the United States was granted control of a ten-mile strip constituting the Canal Zone. This was ratified by the Republic of Panama on December 2, 1903, and by the United States on February 23, 1904. On May 4, 1904, work was begun under United States control. Bird's eye view of Panama Canal Uncle Sam’s Big Work at Panama A bird’s-eye view of the great canal, showing how the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are here joined. [18] [19]